Abstract
The metamorphosis undergone by Jewish women in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was the result of modernization, secularization, and education. Similarly, the offspring of the new Jewish woman, the “new Hebrew woman” was the embodiment of various schools of thought, in particular the liberal and the socialist, which were prevalent at that time. The new Hebrew woman offered a feminist interpretation of the malaise of the Jewish people in general, and of Jewish women in particular, challenging the roles designated to her by her male peers and offering her own alternative interpretation. She chose Eretz Yisrael and Zionism, to “auto-emancipate” herself rather than waiting passively for her emancipation by others. In this sense, the new Hebrew woman collaborated with and reflected the hegemonic Zionist ideals and priorities. This article aims to analyze the discourse of the new Hebrew woman, as manifested in Palestine-Eretz Yisrael in the first half of the twentieth century in order to shed light on the link between gender and nationalism in the Zionist context. In particular, it considers how men and women envisioned the new Hebrew woman; how class, political affiliation, and gender shaped their interpretation; and how the new Hebrew woman differed from her counterpart, the new Jewish woman.
Acknowledgments
This article was first published in Hebrew in Yisrael, no. 16 (2009): 195–225.
Notes
2 In this article I shall present a new interpretation of the term “Hebrew woman” which varies from the typical connotation of that term in European-Jewish enlightenment (Haskalah) discourse. For the traditional connotation see for example CitationFeiner, Mahapekhat ha-ne'orut, 403–10; CitationAdar-Bonis “Yaldut be-mishpahot yehudiyot.”
3 Jabotinsky, “Derekh agav (Al ha-hevdelim bein ha-nashim ha-feministiyot veha-sufragistiyot)” (By the way [On the differences between feminist women and the Suffragettes]), in idem, Le-mahutah shel ha-demokratiyah, 79–84; CitationStanislawski, Zionism and the Fin de Siècle, 27–35. For the significance of the gender revolution in the Zionist movement, see CitationShilo, “Li-dmutah shel ha-ishah.”
6 Hedwig Gellner, “Hovoteinu klapei aliyat ha-ishah” (Our obligations towards the immigration of women), Ha-Ishah 1, no. 2 (1926): 3.
7 See for example Dvorah Belansky-Levanoni, “Pe'ulah tarbutit betokh Histadrut Nashim ‘Mizrachi’” (Cultural activity in the Federation of Mizrachi Women), Amen, Jewish new year's eve, September 1943, 7.
8 For a general discussion of gender and nationality see Yuval Davis, Gender and Nation, 3, 13, 45, 47; and CitationBloom “Gender and Nation in International Comparison.”
9 I use the term hugim ezrahiyim to denote members of the urban and rural middle class, both secular and Orthodox, such as craftsmen, merchants, landlords, farmers, and professionals. See CitationDrori, Bein yamin le-smol, 207–8; CitationGiladi, Ha-yishuv.
10 The voice of the right-wing Revisionist Party that seceded from the Zionist Organization in the mid-1930s is, however, not represented in this study. For the revisionist secession, see Tzhahor, “Ha-ma'avak.”
11 Frieda Yaffe, “Ha-ishah ba-kongres ha-tziyoni” (Women at the Zionist congress), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 2 (1927): 3–6; CitationAvner, “Nashim ba-kongres ha-tziyoni ha-rishon,” 212–13.
12 Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World. For other such influences see CitationRekem Peled, “Ha-tziyonut.”
14 The relationship between Jews and femininity was a common theme in late-nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century discourse. See for example CitationWeininger, Min ve-ofi; idem, Citation“Te'udah”; Shapira, “Ha-mitos shel ha-yehudi ha-hadash” (The myth of the new Jew), in idem, Yehudim hadashim, 155–74; CitationVolkov, “Antishemiyut ve-anti-feminizm”; CitationGluzman, “Ha-kmihah le-heteroseksualiyut”; CitationBoyarin, “Neshef ha-masekhot ha-koloni'ali.”
19 Shamir, Hu halakh ba-sadot, 189.
21 For the “New Jew” archetype, see Shapira, “Ha-mitos.” For the female archetypes, see CitationMatzov-Cohen, “Bein siah hevrati le-siah sifruti”; CitationAlmog, Pridah mi-Srulik, 2:963; CitationShilo, “The Double or Multiple Image”; idem, “Ha-ishah ha-ivriyah ha-hadashah”; CitationBerlowitz, “Be-hipus ahar dyokan”; CitationElboim-Dror, Ha-mahar, 1:183–93.
22 For ethnic representations of women in Zionism, see CitationMargalit Stern, “Who's the Fairest of Them All?”; Elboim-Dror, Ha-mahar, 1:190; Ofrat, Ganim tluyim, 89–90; CitationBerlowitz, “Dmut ha-teimani.” For the liberal middle class, see CitationShiloah, Merkaz holekh ve-ne'elam, 188–201, 219–28. For Russian radical doctrines, see CitationAbraham, “Maria L. Bochkareva”; CitationZmora, Nashim ivriyot tziyoniyot, 111–12; Hanna Thon, “Ha-ishah ve-ahdut ha-am” (Women and the unity of the people), Ha-Ishah, no. 6 (1927): 6.
23 A.R., “Yaldei ha-oni” (The children of poverty), Ozenu 1, no. 5, 1 December 1943, 10.
24 CitationHyman, Ha-ishah, 47–79. For the Zionist and Jewish enlightenment movements’ attitude to women, see also CitationGez, “‘Zehavah’.”
26 Hanna Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur ha-eretz-yisre'eli” (Women in the Land of Israel public), Ha-Ishah, 1, no. 1 (1926): 5–6.
27 P. of Kinneret, “1927,” in Katznelson, ed., Kovetz Divrei Po'alot, 221.
28 P. of Kinneret, “1927,” in Katznelson, ed., Kovetz Divrei Po'alot, 221
31 On religious-Zionist women who joined the socialist camp, see CitationRosenberg-Friedman, Mahapkhaniyot, 35–42, 80–83. For the character of the bourgeoisie in Mandate Palestine, see CitationBen Porat, Heikhan hem ha-burganim ha-hem?
32 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 7–6.
33 Cohen, Ha-ahat ahuvah, 35–36; CitationShilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 258–77.
34 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 6–7.
37 For the scope of this agreement, see Sarah Glucklich, “Knesset Yisrael veha-ishah” (The Israeli Knesset and women), Ha-ishah 2, no. 7 (1928): 9–11. For religious Zionist women in opposition, see Rosenberg-Friedman, Mahapkhaniyot, 45.
38 Fogiel-Bijaoui, “Ha-omnan ba-derekh le-shivyon?”; CitationBoaz, “Parshat ha-ma'avak.”
40 For Theodor Herzl's expression of this idea in his Altneuland, see CitationElboim-Dror, “Ha-ishah ha-tziyonit,” 99–100.
41 Shilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 241–57; idem, “Ha-ma'avak”; CitationFriedman, Hevrah ve-dat, 170–84.
42 P. Dickstein, “Ha-ishah ba-mishpat ha-ivri” (Women in Jewish law), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 4 (1928): 14–15. Most women affiliated with the Orthodox-Zionist Ha-Mizrachi Party did not participate in this struggle. Rosenberg-Friedman, Mahapkhaniyot, 43–49.
43 Sara Azaryahu, “Hitahdut nashim le-shivui zkhuyot be-Eretz Yisrael” (The Union of Women for Equal rights in Eretz Yisrael), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 6 (1928): 12–16.
46 Thon, “Ha-ishah ve-ahdut,” 6.
48 See for example Thon, “Ha-ishah ve-ahdut,” 8.
49 Rachel Katznelson, “Al ha-bamah ha-politit” (On the political stage), Dvar ha-Po'elet 4, nos. 6–7 (1937): 116.
50 As in the case of vocational training institutions which were established at that time. See CitationMaimon, Hamishim shnot ha-po'alot, 99, 102–8; idem, Citation
Ayanot
, 22–31.
51 Zmora, Nashim ivriyot tziyoniyot, 113.
52 Such as the effort of teaching personal hygiene to immigrants in order to develop the desirable traits of the “new Zionist” type. See CitationStoller Liss and Shvarts, “Nilhamot ba-ba'arut.”
54 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 7–8.
55 Hanna Thon, “Tshuvah le-Ya'akov Rabinowitz” (Reply to Ya'akov Rabinowitz), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 1 (1927): 10–12; D. Milikowski, “Min ha-be'ayot ha-meyuhadot la-ahot ha-ivrit ba-aretz” (Some of the special problems of the Hebrew nurse in the country), Ha-ahot (Elul 1938), 6–7; see also CitationSiton, “Bein feminizm le-tziyonut.”
56 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 7–8; idem, “Ha-ishah ve-ahdut,” 9.
58 Adina Kahanski, “Yahasenu el avodat ha-bayit” (Our attitude to housework), Ha-Ishah 1, no. 8 (1927): 26–28.
60 Ze'ev Jabotinsky, “Eglat ha-klei zemer” (The klezmer's cart), in idem, Le-mahutah, 129–35.
61 Adina Kahanski, “Le-huledet tnu'at ha-po'alot be-artzenu” (On the birth of the women workers’ movement in our land), Ha-Ishah 3, no. 2 (1929): 39–41. See also CitationMeir, Hayai, 66.
63 Shilo, “Havat ha-alamot.”
68 “Tehezaknah” (Be strong), Amen, Jewish New Year's eve, 1943, 1. See also Elboim-Dror, Ha-ishah ha-tziyonit; CitationLahav, “Kshe-ha-palyativ rak mekalkel.”
69 “Hatzi shanah shel ha-yarhon Ha-Ishah” (Half a year of the monthly Ha-Ishah), Ha-Ishah 1, no. 6 (1927): 5.
70 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 7.
71 Kahanski, “Yahasenu el avodat ha-bayit.”
72 Kahanski, “Yahasenu el avodat ha-bayit.” [An anonymous Pardes-Hanna resident], “Ha-ishah ha-le'umit datit ba-kfar” (The national-religious woman in the village), Amen, Pesach 1943, 3–4.
74 Kahanski, “Yahasenu el avodat ha-bayit.”
76 From a speech by Dvorah Nosovitsky at a meeting of the women workers' council, 16 January 1937, Labor Archives, Beit Berl (hereafter LA), IV-72-1-1980-250.
77 Margalit-Stern, Geulah bi-kvalim, 324–44.
80 Katznelson-Shazar, Adam kmo she-hu, 311.
81 Lecture Protocol, LA, IV-2367-1-72-250a.
82 Tzila Rotblit, “Hakhsharatan ha-miktzo'it shel ha-olot” (Vocational training of women immigrants), Ha-Ishah 1, no. 2 (1926): 11.
84 Rachel Margolit, “Ha-ishah veha-atletikah ha-kalah” (Women and athletics), Ozenu 1, no. 1 (October 1939): 16–17.
85 Shilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 242–45.
86 Cited in Shilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 242–45
88 Shamir, Hu halakh ba-sadot, 190–91.
89 Lilia [Bassewitz], “Shanah im ‘Dvar ha-Po'elet’” (A year with Dvar ha-Po'elet), Dvar ha-Po'elet 2, no. 1 (March 1935): 27–28.
91 Emmanuel Harussi, “Uvekhen? Sipur me-hayei ha-kvutzah” (And so? A story from the life of the kvutzah), Ha-Shavu'ah: Shavu'on la-mishpahah vela-am, no. 15 (April 1932): 267.
92 Shamir, Hu halakh ba-sadot, 190–91.
93 Harussi, “Uvekhen.” In that period, the Hebrew word bahurah denoted an unwed woman. Today it may denote all young women.
95 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 6–7.
96 Hanna Thon, “Skirot” (Surveys), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 6 (1928): 10–11.
97 Hanna Thon, “Skirot” (Surveys), Ha-Ishah, 2, no. 6 (1928); Zmora, Nashim ivriyot tziyoniyot, 112–13.
100 Dr. Z.N., Dvar ha-Po'elet 1, no. 12, 24 February 1934, 266–68; Harussi, “Uvekhen.” See also CitationOpaz, “‘She'elat ha-ishah.’”
101 Cited in Margalit-Stern, Ge'ulah bi-kvalim, 382.
102 Gerda Arlozorov-Goldberg, “Li-ve'idat ha-po'alot” (On the women workers' conference), Ha-Ishah 1, no. 2 (1926): 18–19.
104 See Yehudit Harari (Eisenberg), “Bein ha-kramim” (Among the vineyards) (1903), in Berlowitz, ed., Sipurei nashim, 151–54; Rabbi Moshe Ostrowski, “Hashpa''t ha-ishah al ha-hinukh” (Women's influence on education), Amen, Jewish new year's eve, 1943, 2.
106 Margalit Stern, “Hinukh nashim”; Zmora, Nashim ivriyot tziyoniyot, 114–17; Rotblit, “Hakhsharatan ha-miktzo'it shel ha-olot,” 11.
107 Parush, Nashim korot, 207–35.
108 In 1926, around 41% of urban women workers were proficient in Hebrew, as compared to 71% of the men. In 1937, the figures were around 80% and 86% respectively. Stern, “Hinukh nashim.” See also Lutetia Levinson, “Ya'akov Rabinowitz veha-‘sarot veha-sganot’ shelo” (Ya'akov Rabinowitz and his “women ministers and deputies”), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 1 (1927): 18–20; M. Ben Eliezer, “Ha-nashim ve-ha-dibur ha-ivri” (Women and spoken Hebrew), ibid., 2, no. 6 (1927): 17–20.
109 Ya'akov Rabinowitz, “Al ha-sarot veha-sganot” (On women ministers and deputies), Ha-Ishah 2, no. 1 (1927): 8–10.
110 Thon, “Ha-ishah ba-tzibur,” 6–7; idem, “Ha-ishah ve-ahdut,” 6.
111 Gellner, “Hovoteinu klapei aliyat ha-ishah” (n. 7 above), 3–4.
112 Belansky-Levanoni, “Pe'ulah tarbutit betokh Histadrut Nashim ‘Mizrachi,’” 7.
113 Belansky-Levanoni, “Pe'ulah tarbutit betokh Histadrut Nashim ‘Mizrachi,’” 7
114 R. Levin, “Teimanim le-‘Kofer ha-Yishuv’” (Yemenites to Kofer ha-Yishuv), Dvar ha-Po'elet 5, nos. 11–12 (February 1939): 217.
115 Rivka, “Ge'ulah” (Redemption), Dvar ha-Po'elet 6, no. 1 (March 1939): 40; Rachel Katznelson, “Al motah” (On her death), ibid., 40–41.
116 S.T., “Be-harheri bakh, Tirtzah ha-ktanah” (On thinking about you, little Tirtzah), Dvar ha-Po'elet 3, nos. 10–11 (January 1937): 234.
117 “Shloshim le-motah shel Tzvia Gordon” (Thirty days after the death of Tzvia Gordon), Dvar ha-Po'elet 4, nos. 11–12 (1938): 235. See also CitationSasson-Levi, Zehuyot be-madim, 9–22.
119 Such as joining the Ha-Shomer community defense organization or enlisting for service in the Hebrew Battalion (Ha-Gdud ha-Ivri). See Shilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 181–92; CitationKeren and Keren, “The Jewish Legions.”
121 Rachel Katznelson (R.K.), “Al ha-hitnadvut” (On volunteering), in idem, ed., Divrei po'alot, 75–76.
125 For the relation between citizenship and military service, see for example Sasson-Levi, Zehuyot, 15–22.
126 Esther Kushnir, “Ha-haverah ba-Haganah” (The woman member of the Haganah), Dvar ha-Po'elet 3, nos. 10–11 (January 1937): 237; “Ha-diyun be-moshav mo'etzet ha-po'alot ha-18 be-1939” (The discussion at the session of the 18th women workers' council in 1939), ibid., 6, no. 3 (June 1939): 63; [Anonymous], “Le-shituf ha-haverah ba-shmirah” (On women members' participation in guarding), ibid., 3, no. 8: (October 1936): 144.
127 For example, during the 6th convention of women workers in 1942. Maimon, Hamishim shnot ha-po'a lot, 196–97.
128 Rosenberg-Friedman, Mahapkhaniyot, 282–89.
129 In June 1942, only 1,000 women out of the total 10,000 recruits were registered. CitationGelber, Toldot ha-hitnadvut, 551; Sivan, Dor tashakh, 157. Regarding women and their place in the collective memory of that time, see CitationRatok, “Nashim be-milhemet ha-atzma'ut”; Maimon, Hamishim shnot ha-po'alot, 195.
132 CitationShilo, Ha-ishah ha-ivriyah, mentions the elusive nature of the Hebrew woman; Elboim-Dror, Ha-ishah ha-tziyonit, notes that Hebrew women were “beautiful” but does not expound on that point.
Londer, Albert. Ha-yehudi ha-noded higi'a: Itona'i tzarfati be-ikvot ha-yehudim (The wandering Jew has arrived: A French journalist in the footsteps of the Jews). Binyamina: Nahar, 2008
Feiner
,
Shmuel
.
2002
.
Mahapekhat ha-ne'orut: Tenu'at ha-haskalah ha-yehudit ba-me'ah ha-18 (The revolution of enlightenment: the Jewish Haskalah movement in the 18th century)
,
Jerusalem
:
Zalman Shazar Center
.
Adar-Bonis
,
Matat
.
2006
.
Yaldut be-mishpahot yehudiyot min ha-ma'amad ha-beinoni be-Polin-Litah ba-me'ah ha-19 ve-aliyatan shel tenu'ot hevratiyot
.
Sotziologiyah Yisre'elit
,
7
(
2
)
:
351
–
80
.
(Childhood in Jewish middle-class families in Poland-Lithuania in the 19th century and the rise of social movements)
Stanislawski
,
Michael
.
2001
.
Zionism and the Fin de Siècle: Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism from Nordau to Jabotinsky
,
Berkeley and Los Angeles
:
University of California Press
.
Shilo
,
Margalit
.
2004
.
Li-dmutah shel ha-ishah ba-aliyah ha-shniyah: Ha-ezrakhit
.
Israel
,
:
53
–
105
.
(The image of the woman in the Second Aliyah: The citizen)
Azaryahu
,
Sarah
.
1977
.
Hitahdut nashim ivriyot le-shivui zekhuyot be-Eretz Yisrael: Prakim le-toldot tnu'at ha-ishah ba'aretz 1900–1947 (The union of Hebrew women for equal rights in Palestine: Chapters in the history of the woman's movement in Palestine, 1900–1947)
,
Haifa
:
Ha-Keren le-Ezrat ha-Ishah
.
Azaryahu
,
Sarah
.
1977
.
Hitahdut nashim ivriyot le-shivui zekhuyot be-Eretz Yisrael: Prakim le-toldot tnu'at ha-ishah ba'aretz 1900–1947 (The union of Hebrew women for equal rights in Palestine: Chapters in the history of the woman's movement in Palestine, 1900–1947)
,
Haifa
:
Ha-Keren le-Ezrat ha-Ishah
.
Bloom
,
Ida
.
2000
.
“
Gender and Nation in International Comparison
”
. In
Gendered Nations: Nationalisms and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth Century
,
Edited by:
Bloom
,
Ida
,
Hagemann
,
Karen
and
Hall
,
Catherine
.
3
–
26
.
Oxford
:
Berg
.
Drori
,
Yigal
.
1990
.
Bein yamin li-smol: Ha-hugim ha-ezrahiyim bi-shnot ha-esrim (Between right and left: The civic circles in the 1920s)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Giladi
,
Dan
.
1973
.
Ha-yishuv bi-tekufat ha-aliyah ha-revi'it (1924–1929): Behinah kalkalit u-politit (The Yishuv during the Fourth Aliyah (1924–1929): An economic and political examination)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Avner
,
Meir
.
1950
.
“
Nashim ba-kongres ha-tziyoni ha-rishon
”
. In
Sefer ha-kongres: Li-mlot hamishim shanah la-kongres ha-tziyoni ha-rishon (The book of the congress: To mark the fiftieth anniversary of the First Zionist Congress)
,
Edited by:
Yaffe
,
Leib
.
212
–
13
.
Jerusalem
:
Jewish Agency
.
(Women at the First Zionist Congress)
Rekem Peled
,
Rina
.
2000
.
“
Ha-tziyonut – bavu'ah shel ha-antishemiyut: Al ha-yahas bein tziyonut le-antishemiyut be-Germaniyah shel ha-Reich ha-sheni
”
. In
Ha-antishemiyut ha-germanit: Ha'arakhah me-hadash (German anti-Semitism: A reassessment)
,
Edited by:
Borut
,
Ya'kov
and
Heilbrunner
,
Oded
.
133
–
56
.
Jerusalem and Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
(Zionism as a reflection of anti-Semitism: On the relationship between Zionism and anti-Semitism in the Germany of the Second Reich)
Ofrat
,
Gideon
.
1982
.
Ganim teluyim: Od prakim be-arkhetipologiyah shel tarbut (Hanging gardens: More chapters in the archetypology of culture)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Omanut Yisrael
.
Mosse
,
George L.
1985
.
Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe
,
New York
:
Howard Fertig
.
Weininger
,
Otto
.
1953
.
Min Ve-Ofi (Sex and character) (1903)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Ktavim
.
Weininger
,
Otto
.
2004
.
Te'udah: Otto Weininger, ‘Yahadut veha-nashiyut’
.
Zmanim
,
:
22
–
5
.
(Document: Otto Weininger, “Judaism and Feminity”)
Volkov
,
Shulamit
.
2002
.
“
Antishemiyut ve-anti-feminizm: Bein normah hevratit le-kod hevrati
”
.
130
–
40
.
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
(Anti-semitism and anti-feminism: Between a social norm and a social code). In idem, Ba-ma'agal ha-mekhushaf: Yehudim, antishemim ve-germanim aherim (In the vicious circle: Jews, anti-Semites and other Germans)
Gluzman
,
Michael
.
Winter 1997
.
Ha-kmihah le-heteroseksu'aliyut: Tziyonut ve-miniyut be-Altneuland
.
Teoriyah u-Vikoret
,
:
145
–
62
.
(The yearning for heterosexuality: Zionism and sexuality in Altneuland)
Boyarin
,
Daniel
.
Winter 1997
.
Neshef ha-masekhot ha-koloni'ali: Tziyonut, migdar ve-hikui
.
Te'oriyah u-Vikoret
,
:
123
–
44
.
(The colonial masked ball: Zionsim, gender and imitation)
Shiffman
,
Smadar
.
2002
.
“
Toda'ah nashit be-siper tziyoni: Hi nekhonah lekabel al atzmah dmut zo she-hu malbish lah be-dimyono
”
. In
Ha-ivriyot ha-hadashot: Nashim ba-yishuv uva-tziyonut bi-re'i ha-migdar (The new Hebrew women: Women in the Yishuv and Zionism in the mirror of gender)
,
Edited by:
Shilo
,
Margalit
,
Kark
,
Ruth
and
Hazan-Rokem
,
Galit
.
189
–
203
.
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
(Women's consciousness in Zionist narrative: She is willing to accept the image in which he clothes her in his imagination)
Gertz
,
Nurith
.
1988
.
Sifrut ve-idiologiyah be-Eretz Yisrael bi-shnot ha-shloshim (Literature and ideology in the 1930s)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Open University
.
Gertz
,
Nurith
.
1995
.
Shvuyah ba-halomah: Mitosim ba-tarbut ha-yisre'elit (Captives of a dream: Myths in Israeli culture)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Shapira
,
Anita
.
1998
.
Yehudim hadashim, yehudim yeshanim (New Jews, Old Jews)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Raichel
,
Nirit
.
1997
.
‘Shorashim’ o ‘ofakim’: Dyokan ha-talmid ha-eretz-yisre'eli ha-ratzui ba-shanim 1889–1933
.
Cathedra
,
:
55
–
96
.
(“Roots” or “horizons”: A portrait of the desired Land of Israel student in 1889–1933)
Hunt
,
Tamara L.
and
Lessard
,
Micheline R.
, eds.
2002
.
Women and the Colonial Gaze
,
New York
:
New York University Press
.
Neumann
,
Boaz
.
2009
.
Tshukat ha-halutzim (The passion of the pioneers)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Yedi'ot Aharonot
.
Hazleton
,
Lesley
.
1977
.
Israeli Women: The Reality behind the Myths
,
New York
:
Simon and Schuster
.
Mishori
,
Alik
.
2000
.
Shuru, habitu u-re'u: Ikonot ve-smalim hazutiyim tziyoniyim ba-tarbut ha-yisre'elit (Gaze, look, and see: Zionist visual icons and symbols in Israeli culture)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Matzov-Cohen
,
Ofra
.
October 2007
.
Bein siah hevrati le-siah sifruti: Itzuv ha-siah ha-feministi be-kovtzei po'alim mul itzuvo ba-roman al ha-tkufah ha-halutzit
.
Moreshet Yisrael
,
4
:
185
–
208
.
(Between social discourse and literary discourse: The shaping of feminist discourse in workers' collections in comparison with its shaping in the novel in the pioneering period)
Almog
,
Oz
.
2004
.
Pridah mi-Srulik: Shinui arakhim ba-elitah ha-yisre'elit (Farewell to Srulik: Changing values among the Israeli elite)
,
2 vols
,
Haifa
:
Haifa University and Zmora Bitan
.
Shilo
,
Margalit
.
1998
.
The Double or Multiple Image of the New Hebrew Woman
.
Nashim
,
:
73
–
94
.
Berlowitz
,
Yaffa
.
1980
.
Be-hipus ahar dyokan ‘ha-eretz yisre'elit’ be-sifrut ha-nashim bi-tkufat ha-Yishuv
.
Bikoret u-Farshanut
,
:
91
–
113
.
(In search of the “Land of Israel woman” in women's literature in the Yishuv period)
Elboim-Dror
,
Rachel
.
1993
.
Ha-mahar shel ha-etmol (Yesterday's tomorrow)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
Margalit Stern
,
Bat-Sheva
.
2006
.
Who's the Fairest of Them All? Women, Womanhood and Ethnicity in Zionist Eretz Israel
.
Nashim
,
:
142
–
63
.
Berlowitz
,
Yaffa
.
1981
.
Dmut ha-temani be-sifrut ha-aliyot ha-rishonot al reka ha-mifgash ha-bein-adati
.
Pe'amim
,
10
:
76
–
108
.
(The image of the Yemenite in the literature of the first aliyot against the background of the inetr-ethnic encounter)
Shiloah
,
Naomi
.
2003
.
Merkaz holekh ve-ne'elam: Ha-hugim ha-ezrahiym be-Eretz Yisrael bi-shnot ha-shloshim (A disappearing center: The civil circles in the Land of Israel in the 1930s)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
Abraham
,
Richard
.
1993
.
“
Maria L. Bochkareva and the Russian Amazons of 1917
”
. In
Women and Society in Russia and the Soviet Union
,
Edited by:
Edmondson
,
L.
124
–
44
.
Cambridge
:
Cambridge University Press
.
Zmora
,
Esther
.
2002
.
Nashim ivriyot tziyoniyot (Zionist Hebrew women)
,
Tel Aviv
:
WIZO
.
Hyman
,
Paula
.
1997
.
Ha-ishah ha-yehudiyah bi-svakh ha-kidmah: Mekomah ve-yitzugah ba-et ha-hadashah (The Jewish women in the web of progress: Her place and representation in the modern age)
,
Jerusalem
:
Zalman Shazar Center
.
Gez
,
Ronit
.
2009
.
‘Zehava’ me-et Batya Kahane (1936): Migdar u-le'umiyut be-sifrut ha-tehiyah ha-le'umit
.
Israelim
,
:
31
–
47
.
(“Zehava” by Batya Kahane [1936]: Gender and nationalism in the literature of national renaiisance)
Parush
,
Iris
.
2001
.
Nashim korot: Yitronot shel shuliyot (Women readers: The advantages of marginality)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Cohen
,
Tova
.
2002
.
Ha-ahat ahuvah veha-ahat snu'ah: Bein metzi'ut le-vidayon be-sifrut ha-haskalah (One woman loved and one hated: Between reality and imagination in Haskalah literature)
,
Jerusalem
:
Publisher
.
Berlowitz
,
Yaffa
.
2002–2003
.
Lihiyot ishah ba-yishuv ha-yashan: Portret histori-antropologi
.
Zmanim
,
:
99
–
105
.
(Being a woman in the old Yishuv: A historical-anthropological portrait)
Slae
,
Bracha
.
2007
.
Me-gemilut hasadim le-mosad refu'i: ‘Ezrat Nashim’ 1895–1906
.
Cathedra
,
:
53
–
78
.
(From charity to a medical institution: “Ezrat Nashim,” 1895–1906)
Herzog
,
Hanna
.
2002
.
Redefining Political Spaces: A Gender Perspective on the Yishuv Historiography
.
Journal of Israeli History
,
21
(
1–2
)
:
1
–
25
.
Rosenberg-Friedman
,
Lilach
.
2005
.
Mahapkhaniyot be-al korhan: Nashim u-migdar ba-tziyonut ha-datit bi-tkufat ha-yishuv (Revolutionaries despite themselves: Women and gender in religious Zionism in the Yishuv period)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
Ben Porat
,
Amir
.
1999
.
Heikhan hem ha-burganim ha-hem? Toldot ha-burganut ha-yisre'elit (Where are the bourgeois? A history of the Israeli bourgeoisie)
,
Jerusalem
:
Magnes
.
Shilo
,
Margalit
.
2007
.
Etgar ha-migdar: Nashim ba-aliyot ha-rishonot (The challenge of gender: Women in the first aliyot)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Hakibbutz Hameuchad
.
De Beauvoir
,
Simone
.
1989
.
The Second Sex
,
Trans. and ed. H.M. Parshley
New York
:
Vintage Books
.
Scott
,
Joan W.
1994
.
“
Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: Or The Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism
”
. In
Theorizing Feminism: Parallel Trends in the Humanities and Social Sciences
,
2nd ed.
,
Edited by:
Herrmann
,
Anne C.
and
Stewart
,
Abigail J.
254
–
70
.
Boulder
:
Westview Press
.
Boaz
,
Hagai
.
2002
.
Parshat ha-ma'avak al zekhut ha-behirah le-nashim bi-tkufat ha-yishuv: Ha-status quo ve-yetzirat kategoriyot hevratiyot
.
Te'oriyah u-vikoret
,
:
107
–
31
.
(The struggle for women's right to vote in the Yishiv: The status quo and creation of social categories)
Berlowitz
,
Yaffa
.
2001
.
Sipurei nashim bnot ha-aliyah ha-rishonah (Stories of women of the First Aliyah)
,
Hod Hasharon
:
Astrolog
.
Berlowitz
,
Yaffa
.
2007
.
London, Yerushalayim ve-Petah Tikvah: Rashei prakim bi-khtivatah uve-hitkablutah shel Hanna Berent-Trager
.
Masekhet
,
:
87
–
118
.
(London, Jerusalem, Petah Tikvah: Notes on the writing and reception of Hanna Berent-Trager)
Elboim-Dror
,
Rachel
.
2001
.
“
Ha-ishah ha-tziyonit ha-ide'alit
”
. In
Ha-tishma koli? Yitzugim shel nashim ba-tarbut ha-yisre'elit (Will you hear my voice? Representations of women in Israeli culture)
,
Edited by:
Atzmon
,
Yael
.
95
–
115
.
Jerusalem
:
Van Leer Institute and Hakibbutz Hameuchad
.
(The ideal Zionist woman)
Friedman
,
Menachem
.
1978
.
Hevrah ve-dat: Ha-ortodoksiyah ha-lo-tziyonit be-Eretz Yisrael 1918–1936 (Society and religion: The non-Zionist orthodoxy in the Land of Israel, 1918–1936)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
Folbre
,
Nancy
.
1995
.
‘Holding Hands at Midnight’: The Paradox of Caring Labor
.
Feminist Economics
,
:
73
–
92
.
Freedman
,
Estelle
.
1979
.
Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution Building and American Feminism, 1870–1930
.
Feminist Studies
,
5
(
3
)
:
512
–
29
.
Kennedy
,
Marie
and
Tilly
,
Chris
.
1987
.
Socialism, Feminism and the Stillbirth of Socialist Feminism in Europe, 1890–1920
.
Science and Society
,
51
(
1
)
:
43
–
67
.
Maimon
,
Ada
.
1956
.
Hamishim shnot ha-po'alot, 1904–1954 (Fifty years of the women workers, 1904–1954)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Maimon
,
Ada
.
1946
.
Ayanot: Darkah shel bat Yisrael el ha-hakla'ut (Ayanot: The path of a daughter of Israel to agriculture)
,
Jerusalem
:
Sifriyat Kav le-Kav
.
Stoller Liss
,
Sakhlav
and
Shvarts
,
Shifra
.
2004
.
Nilkhamot ba-ba'arut uve-hergelim nekhshalim: Tfisot u-praktikot shel ahayot ve-rofim klapei olim ba-aliyah ha-gdolah shel shnot ha-hamishim
.
Israel
,
:
31
–
62
.
(Fighting ignorance and bad habits: The perceptions and practices of nurses and doctors towards immigrants in the great immigration wave of the 1950s)
Margalit Stern
,
Bat-Sheva
.
2006
.
Haverot le-mofet: Yotzot Teiman bein migdar, ma'amad ve-edah bi-tnu'at ha-avodah (1920–1945)
.
Cathedra
,
:
115
–
44
.
(Exemplary members: Yemenite immigrants between gender, class and ethnic community in the Labor Movement [1920–1945])
Siton
,
Shoshana
.
1998
.
Bein feminizm le-tziyonut: Ma'avak ha-gananot ha-ivriyot le-hakarah miktzo'it
.
Zmanim
,
:
26
–
37
.
(Between feminism and Zionism: The struggle of the Hebrew kindergarten teachers for professional recognition)
Shchori-Rubin
,
Tzipora
and
Shvarts (with Yoel Donkhin)
,
Shifra
.
2003
.
“Hadassah” li-vri'ut ha-am: Pe'ilutah ha-bri'utit-ha-hinukhit shel “Hadassah” be-Eretz Yisrael bi-tkufat ha-mandat ha-briti (“Hadassah” for the health of the people: The health-educational activity of Hadassah in Mandate Palestine)
,
Jerusalem
:
Ha- Sifriyah ha- Tziyonit
.
Margalit Stern
,
Bat-Sheva
.
2006
.
Geulah bi-kvalim: Tnu'at ha-po'alot be-Eretz Yisrael, 1920–1939 (Redemption in bondage: The Women Workers Movement in Eretz Yisrael 1920–1939)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi and Shechter Institute
.
Meir
,
Golda
.
1975
.
Hayai (My life)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Ma'ariv
.
Shilo
,
Margalit
.
1980
.
“Havat ha-alamot be-Kinneret, 1911–1917 ke-fitaron li-ve'ayat ha-po'elet ba-aliyah ha-shniyah
”
. In
Cathedra
81
–
112
.
14
Carmel-Hakim
,
Esther
.
2008
.
Shalhevet yerukah: Hanna Meisel – mifal hayim (A green flame: Hanna Meisel – a life's work)
,
Ramat Efal
:
Yad Tabenkin
.
Yuval-Davis
,
Nira
.
1997
.
Gender and Nation
,
London
:
Sage Publications
.
Katz
,
Sheila H.
2003
.
Women and Gender in Early Jewish and Palestinian Nationalism
,
Florida
:
University Press of Florida
.
Baron
,
Beth
.
2005
.
Egypt as a Woman: Nationalism, Gender and Politics
,
Berkeley
:
University of California Press
.
Thompson
,
Elizabeth
.
2000
.
Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon
,
New York
:
Columbia University Press
.
Lerner
,
Gerda
.
1993
.
The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy
,
New York
:
Oxford University Press
.
Offen
,
Karen
.
2000
.
European Feminisms, 1700–1930: A Political History
,
Stanford
:
Stanford University Press
.
Lahav
,
Pnina
.
1993
.
Kshe-ha-palyativ rak mekalkel: Ha-diyun ba-Knesset al hok shivui zkhuyot ha-ishah
.
Zmanim
,
:
149
–
59
.
(When the cure only spoils: The Knesset discussion on the law for women's equal rights)
Matthews
,
Glenna
.
1987
.
“Just a Housewife”: The Rise and Fall of Domesticity in America
,
Oxford
:
Oxford University Press
.
Margalit Stern
,
Bat-Sheva
.
1999
.
“
Hinukh nashim bi-tnu'at ha-po'alot ha-eretz yisre'elit: Bein masoret le-kidmah
”
. In
Hinukh ve-historiyah: Heksherim tarbutiyim u-politiyim (Education and history: Cultural and political contexts)
,
Edited by:
Feldhai
,
Rivka
and
Atex
,
Emanuel
.
391
–
404
.
Jerusalem
:
Zalman Shazar Center
.
(Women's education in the women workers' movement in Palestine: Between tradition and progress)
Hecker-Palgi
,
Anat
.
2006
.
Me-i-mahut le-imahut (From non-essentiality to motherhood)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Publisher
.
Katznelson-Shazar
,
Rachel
.
1990
.
Adam kmo she-hu: Pirkei yomanim ve-reshimot (A person as he is: Chapters of diaries and notes)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Schechter
,
Tamar
.
2007
.
Imahut me-havayah ishit le-vitui tziburi: Hayeha u-fo'alah shel Rachel Katznelson-Shazar
.
Masekhet
,
7
:
29
–
58
.
(Motherhood from personal experience to public expression: The life and work of Rachel Katznelson-Shazar)
Biale
,
David
.
1997
.
Eros and the Jews
,
Berkeley
:
University of California Press
.
Gilman
,
Sander L.
Autumn 2004
.
Max Nordau, Sigmund Freud ve-she'elat hamarat ha-dat
.
Zmanim
,
:
8
–
25
.
(Max Nordau, Sigmund Freud and the question of conversion)
Ortner
,
Sherry B.
1974
.
“
Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?
”
. In
Woman, Culture and Society
,
Edited by:
Rosaldo
,
Michelle Zimbalist
and
Lamphere
,
Louise
.
67
–
87
.
Stanford
:
Stanford University Press
.
Chapman Catt
,
Carrie
and
Rogers Schuler
,
Nettie
.
1923
.
Woman Suffrage and Politics: The Inner Story of the Suffrage Movement
,
New York
:
C. Scribner's Sons
.
Wollstonecraft
,
Mary
.
1996
.
A Vindication of the Rights of Women
,
Mineola, NY
:
Dover Publications
.
1792.
Key
,
Ellen
.
1912
.
Love and Ethics
,
New York
:
B.W. Huebsch
.
Gilbert
,
Sandra M.
and
Gubar
,
Susan
.
1979
.
The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century Literary Imagination
,
New Haven, CT
:
Yale University Press
.
Weibel
,
Katherine
.
1977
.
Mirror Mirror: Images of Women Reflected in Popular Culture
,
New York
:
Anchor Books
.
Wolf
,
Naomi
.
1991
.
The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used against Women
,
New York
:
Morrow
.
Cavalion
,
Gabriel
.
2004
.
Aliyato u-shki'ato shel ha-hinukh ha-mini be-kibutzei ‘Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir’
.
Cathedra
,
:
53
–
82
.
(The rise and fall of sex education in the kibbutzim of Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir)
Pekelman
,
Henya M.
1935
.
Hayei po'elet ba-aretz: Otobiografiyah, Henia M. Peckelman (The life of a woman worker in Palestine: Autobiography, Henya M. Pekelman)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Self-Publishing
.
Almog
,
Oz
.
1997
.
Ha-tzabar: Dyokan (The Sabra: A portrait)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Opaz
,
Aviva
.
2005
.
“
(The old will be renewed and the new will be sanctified: On identity, culture, and Judaism. A collection in memory of Meir Eyali)
”
. In
Ha-yashan yithadesh veha-hadash yitkadesh: Al zehut, tarbut ve-yahadut – asufah le-zekher Meir Eyali
,
Edited by:
Friedlander
,
Yehuda
,
Shavit
,
Uzi
and
Sagi
,
Avi
.
199
–
214
.
Tel Aviv
:
Hakibbutz Hameuchad
.
(The “woman question” and the voices of women in the pioneering society: A reading of kvutzot diaries, myth versus reality)
Shavit
,
Yaacov
.
1996
.
“
Ha-roved ha-tarbuti ha-haser u-miluyo: Bein ‘tarbut amamit rishmit’ le-‘tarbut amamit lo rishmit’ ba-tarbut ha-ivrit ha-le'umit be-Eretz Yisrael
”
. In
Ha-tarbut ha-amamit: Kovetz mehkarim (Popular culture: Collected studies)
,
Edited by:
Kedar
,
B.Z.
245
–
327
.
Jerusalem
:
Zalman Shazar Center
.
(The missing cultural layer and its replenishment: Between “formal popular culture” and “informal popular culture” in national Hebrew culture in Palestine)
Alper
,
Rivka
.
1967
.
Korot mishpahah ahat (The story of a family)
,
Tel Aviv
:
M. Neyman
.
Sasson-Levi
,
Orna
.
2006
.
Zehuyot be-madim: Gavriyut ve-nashiyut ba-tzava ha-yisre'eli (Identities in uniform: Masculinity and feminity in the Israeli army)
,
Jerusalem and Tel Aviv
:
Magnes
.
Bassewitz
,
Lilia
and
Bat-Rachel
,
Yocheved
, eds.
1944
.
Haverot ba-kibutz (Women members of the kibbutz)
,
Ein Harod
:
Hakibbutz Hameuchad
.
Keren
,
Shlomit
and
Keren
,
Michael
.
2007
.
The Jewish Legions in the First World War as a Locus of Identity Formation
.
Journal of Modern Jewish Studies
,
6
(
1
)
:
69
–
83
.
Oren
,
Elhanan
.
1991
.
“
Ha-hitnadvut le-khibush ha-aretz, 1915–1918
”
. In
Ba-matzor uva-matzok: Eretz Yisrael be-milhemet ha-olam ha-rishonah (Under siege and pressure: Palestine in World War I)
,
Edited by:
Eliav
,
Mordechai
.
234
–
47
.
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
(Volunteering to conquer the country, 1915–1918)
Goldblum
,
Amira
.
1998
.
Nashim bi-zman milhamah ve-shalom
.
Zmanim
,
:
14
–
25
.
(Women in war and peace)
Cohen
,
Geula
.
1962
.
Sipurah shel lohemet (The story of a female fighter)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Karni
.
Zertal
,
Idith
.
2002
.
Ha-umah veha-mavet: Historiyah, zikaron, politikah (The nation and death: History, memory, politics)
,
Or Yehuda
:
Am Oved
.
Bitan
,
Dan
.
1997
.
“
‘On Sagi poreah’: Mitosim shel gvurah lohemet be-reshit ha-tziyonut, 1880–1903
”
. In
Mitos ve-zikaron: Gilguleha shel ha-toda'ah ha-yisre'elit (Myth and memory: The metamorphoses of Israeli consciousness)
,
Edited by:
Ohana
,
David
and
Wistrich
,
Robert S.
169
–
88
.
Jerusalem
:
Hakibbutz Hameuchad
.
(“Flourishing might”: Myths of fighting heroism in early Zionism, 1880–1903)
Shapira
,
Anita
.
1992
.
Herev ha-yonah: Ha-tziyonut veha-koah, 1881–1948 (The sword of the dove: Zionism and force)
,
Tel Aviv
:
Am Oved
.
Avidar
,
Yosef
.
1988
.
“
Hitpathuyot be-irgun ‘ha-Haganah’ ba-shanim 1936–1939
”
. In
Tzva ha-medinah ba-derekh: Prakim be-toldot koah ha-magen ha-ivri (The army of the state in the making: Chapters in the history of the Hebrew defense force)
,
112
–
21
.
Tel Aviv
:
Yad Tabenkin and Ministry of Defense
.
(Developments in organizing the “Haganah” in 1936–1939)
Gelber
,
Yoav
.
1979
.
Toldot ha-hitnadvut: Ha-hitnadvut u-mekomah ba-mediniyut ha-tziyonit veha-yishuvit, 1939–1942 (The history of volunteering: The place of volunteering in Zionist and Yishuv policy, 1939–1942)
,
Jerusalem
:
Yad Ben Zvi
.
Ratok
,
Lily
.
2002
.
“
Nashim be-milhemet ha-atzma'ut: Mitos ve-zikaron
”
. In
Kovetz ma'amarim likhvod Dov Sadan: Mehkarim ba-sifrut ha-ivrit (Articles in honor of Dov Sadan: Studies in Hebrew literature)
,
Edited by:
Holtzman
,
Avner
.
287
–
303
.
Tel Aviv
:
Tel Aviv University
.
(Women in the War of Independence: Myth and memory)
Gover
,
Rivka
.
1964
.
“
Hayalot mefuyahot
”
. In
Im pa'amei ha-dor: Yalkut mahatzit ha-yovel shel Dvar ha-Po'elet (In step with the generation: A collection to mark 25 years of Dvar ha-Po'elet
,
Edited by:
Katznelson-Shazar
,
R.
108
Jerusalem
:
Histadrut ha-Ovdim ha-Klalit – Mo'etzet ha-Po'alot
.
(Sooty soldiers)
Mayer
,
Margot
.
1985
.
“
Ishah ba-milhamah
”
. In
Hineni, shlaheni: Mitnadvim ba-tzava ha-briti kotvim (Here I am, send me: Volunteers in the British army write)
,
Edited by:
Margalit
,
Yaakov
.
46
–
52
.
Ramat Efal
:
Yad Tabenkin
.
(Woman in war)
Shilo
,
Margalit
.
2000
.
Ha-ishah ha-ivriyah ha-hadashah – panim rabot lah: Ha-shomeret ke-mikreh mivhan
.
Bikoret u-Farshanut
,
:
7
–
17
.
(The new Hebrew woman has many faces: The guardswoman as a test case)
Melman
,
Billy
.
1998
.
Re'alot shkufot: Koloni'alizm ve-gender: Likrat diyun histori mehudash
.
Zmanim
,
:
84
–
102
.
(Transparent veils: Colonialism and gender: Towards a renewed discussion)