Action Plan or Faction Plan? Germany's Eclectic Approach to Conflict Prevention

Abstract

Conflict prevention, more than other fields of international politics and foreign policy, is characterized by a multiplicity of state and non-state actors, giving rise to particularly complex coordination challenges. This article evaluates the extent to which the German response to these challenges, the action plan for civilian conflict prevention, has succeeded in its aim of improving coordination to increase policy coherence between different governmental agencies as well as with civil society actors. It finds that although the general approach is indeed promising, the government's lack of commitment prevents it from tapping into the action plan's full potential.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A previous version of this paper was presented at the research colloquium of the Institute for Development and Peace, University of Duisburg–Essen. We would like to thank the participants, in particular Tobias Debiel and Angelika Spelten, for helpful comments. We are furthermore grateful to Christian Reisinger as well as the editor and reviewers of International Peacekeeping for providing valuable suggestions.

Notes

Mary B. Anderson, Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace – or War, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999.

On the problem of policy coherence in conflict prevention, see e.g. Robert Picciotto, ‘Aid and Conflict: The Policy Coherence Challenge’, Conflict, Security & Development, Vol.4, No.3, 2004, pp.543–62.

See Susanna P. Campbell, ‘(Dis)Integration, Incoherence and Complexity in UN Post-conflict Interventions’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.15, No.4, 2008, pp.556–69.

See Greg Austin, Emery Brusset, Malcolm Chalmers and Juliet Pierce, Evaluation of the Conflict Prevention Pools: Synthesis Report, London: Department for International Development, 2004 (at: www.dfid.gov.uk/aboutdfid/performance/files/ev647synthesis.pdf).

Federal Government Action Plan, ‘Civilian Crisis Prevention, Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Peace-building’, Federal Government, Berlin, 2004. See Andreas Mehler and Daniel Dückers's otherwise critical article, ‘Deutsche Außenpolitik und Krisenprävention: Schicksal eines vordergründig erfolgreichen Paradigmas’ [German foreign policy and crisis prevention: the fate of a seemingly successful paradigm], in Thomas Jäger, Alexander Höse and Kai Oppermann (eds) Deutsche Außenpolitik: Sicherheit, Wohlfahrt, Institutionen und Normen [German Foreign Policy: Security, Welfare, Institutions and Norms], Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2007, p.232.

Christoph Weller, ‘Zwischen Normen und Reformen: Deutsche Außenpolitik in der Weltgesellschaft’ [Between norms and reforms: German foreign policy in world society], paper for panel on ‘Reform der Außenpolitik’ [Reforms in Foreign Policy] at the 23rd Academic Convention, German Political Science Association, Münster, 27 Sept. 2006 (at: www.dvpw.de/dummy/fieadmin/docs/2006xWeller.pdf).

Tobias Debiel, ‘Wie weiter mit effektiver Krisenprävention? Der Aktionsplan der Bundesregierung im Vergleich zu den britischen Conflict Prevention Pools’ [How to go on with effective crisis prevention? The federal government's action plan in comparison with the British Conflict Prevention Pools], Die Friedens-Warte, Vol.79, Nos.3–4, 2004, p.293; Federal Government Action Plan (see n.5 above), p.1.

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Hans J. Gießmann, ‘Bundeswehr zur Prävention?’ [The Bundeswehr as an instrument for prevention?], in Hans J. Gießmann and Armin Wagner (eds), Armee im Einsatz. Grundlagen, Strategien und Ergebnisse einer Beiteiligung der Bundeswehr [An Army Deployed: Basis, Strategies and Results of a Participation of the Bundeswehr], Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009, pp.46–59.

Jennifer M. Hazen, ‘Can Peacekeepers Be Peacebuilders?’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.14, No.3, 2007, pp.323–38.

Christoph Weller, ‘Zivile Konfliktbearbeitung im Aufwind? Regierung und Nichtregierungsorganisationen formulieren ehrgeizige Pläne’ [Civilian conflict management on the rise? Government and non-governmental organisations formulate ambitious plans], in Weller, Ulrich Ratsch, Reinhard Mutz, Bruno Schoch and Corinna Hauswedell (eds), Friedensgutachten 2004, Münster: LIT, 2004, p.279.

Angelika Spelten, ‘Was hat Frühwarnung mit der Vermeidung von Krieg zu tun?’ [What is the connection between early warning and the prevention of wars?], in Weller et al. (see n.15 above), pp.269–70.

Tanja Rother, ‘Early Warning und Early Action: Potenziale nicht-staatlicher Akteure der zivilen Konfliktbearbeitung’ [Early warning and early action: the potential of non-state actors of civilian conflict management], in Hans J. Gießmann and Patricia Schneider (eds), Reformen zur Friedenskonsolidierung: Forschungen im akademischen Netzwerk Südosteuropa 2004/2005 [Reforms to Consolidate Peace: Research of the Academic Network Southeast Europe 2004/2005], Hamburg: Institut für Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik an der Universität Hamburg, 2006, pp.31–61.

Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict: Final Report, New York: Carnegie Corporation, 1997, p.113.

Martin van Creveld, The Transformation of War: The Most Radical Reinterpretation of Armed Conflict since Clausewitz, New York: Free Press, 1991; Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era, Cambridge: Polity, 1999; Herfried Münkler, The New Wars, Cambridge: Polity, 2005.

Charles King, Ending Civil Wars, Oxford: Oxford University Press/International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1997, pp.29–53; Robert I. Rotberg, ‘The New Nature of Nation-State Failure’, Washington Quarterly, Vol.25, No.3, 2002, pp.85–96; François Jean and Jean-Christophe Rufin (eds), Economie des guerres civiles [The Economy of Civil Wars], Paris: Hachette, 1996; William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999; Gil Loescher and James Milner, ‘The Long Road Home: Protracted Refugee Situations in Africa’, Survival, Vol.47, No.2, 2005, pp.153–74; Robert B. Zoellick, ‘Fragile States: Securing Development’, Survival, Vol.50, No.6, 2008, pp.67–84.

Tobias Debiel and Monika Sticht, ‘Towards a New Profile? Development, Humanitarian and Conflict-Resolution NGOs in the Age of Globalization’, INEF Report 79, Institute for Development and Peace, Duisburg, 2005, pp.27–37.

Carnegie Commission (see n.18 above), p.113.

Robert A. Rubinstein, Diana M. Keller and Michael E. Scherger, ‘Culture and Interoperability in Integrated Missions’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.15, No.4, 2008, pp.540–55.

See e.g. Tom Porteous, ‘British Government Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa under New Labour’, International Affairs, Vol.81, No.2, 2004, pp.281–97.

See e.g. Debiel and Sticht (see n.21 above), pp.35–7; Karen Ballentine and Heiko Nitzschke, ‘Business and Armed Conflict: An Assessment of Issues and Options’, Die Friedens-Warte, Vol.79, Nos.1–2, 2004, pp.35–56.

Volker Matthies, Krisenprävention: Vorbeugen ist besser als heilen [Crisis Prevention: Prophylaxis Is Better than Cure], Opladen: Leske & Budrich, 2000, pp.111–24.

Christoph Weller, ‘Aktionsplan Zivile Krisenprävention der Bundesregierung – Jetzt ist dynamische Umsetzung gefordert’ [The action plan civilian crisis prevention – it is time for dynamic implementation], INEF Policy Brief 2/2007, Institute for Development and Peace, Duisburg, 2007, p.4.

See Andreas Buro, ‘Weichenstellung ziviler Konfliktbearbeitung in Europa’ [Turning the switchblade for civilian conflict management in Europe], in Wolfgang R. Vogt (ed.), Frieden als Zivilisierungsprojekt [Peace as a Civilizing Project], Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos, 1995, pp. 73–82; Jörg Calließ, ‘Friede kann nicht erzwungen werden: Plädoyer für zivile Konfliktbearbeitung’ [Peace cannot be enforced: plea for a civilian conflict management], Berliner Debatte/Initial, No.6/2005, pp.37–46.

Federal Government, ‘Comprehensive Concept of the Federal Government on Civilian Crisis Prevention, Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Peace-Building’, Berlin, 2000 (at: www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/aussenpolitik/friedenspolitik/ziv_km/konfliktpraev_html).

Ibid.

Weller (see n.15 above).

Plattform Zivile Konfliktbearbeitung, ‘Frieden braucht Gesellschaft! Gesellschaftliche Ansätze in der Zivilen Konfliktbearbeitung. Eine Bestandsaufnahme’ [No peace without society! Societal approaches in civilian conflict management: taking stock], Wahlenau, Germany: Plattform Zivile Konfliktbearbeitung, 2003 (at: www.ifa.de/zivik/download/frieden_20041116.pdf).

Federal Government (see n.5 above), p.87.

Federal Government, ‘Working Together to Strengthen Security and Stability through Crisis Prevention: 1st Federal Government Report on the Implementation of the Action Plan “Civilian Crisis Prevention, Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Peacebuilding”’, Berlin, 2006, p.93 (at: www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/de/Aussenpolitik/FriedenSicherheit/Krisenpraevention/Aktionsplan1Bericht0506-EN.pdf).

Christoph Weller, ‘Zivile Krisenprävention und Konfliktbearbeitung: Politische Herausforderungen und der Aktionsplan der Bundesregierung’ [Civilian crisis prevention and conflict management: political challenges and the federal government's action plan], in Renate Grasse, Wilhelm Nolte, and Peter Schlotter (eds), Berliner Friedenspolitik? Militärische Transformation – zivile Impulse – europäische Einbindung [Berlin Peace Policy? Military Transformation – Civilian Impetuses – European Embeddedness], Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos, 2008.

Federal Government (see n.5 above), p.98.

Federal Government, (see n.34 above); Federal Government, ‘Working Together; Federal Government, Crisis Prevention as a Shared Task: 2nd Federal Government Report on the Implementation of the Action Plan “Civilian Crisis Prevention, Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Peacebuilding”’, Berlin, 2008 (at: www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/de/Aussenpolitik/Themen/Krisenpraevention/neu/Downloads/Aktionsplan-Bericht2-en.pdf).

Andreas Mehler and Hans-Chrsitian Mahnke, Major Flaws in Conflict Prevention Policies towards Africa. The Conceptual Deficits of International Actors’ Approaches and How to Overcome Them, Hamburg: German Overseas Institute, 2005, p.28 (at: www.giga-hamburg.de/dl/download.php?d=/content/publikationen/pdf/wp04_mehler.pdf).

Christoph Weller, ‘Jetzt ist dynamische Umsetzung gefordert’ [It is time for a dynamic implementation], Frieden braucht Fachleute, No.3, 2007, p.3; Federal Government, Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Winfried Nachtwei, Kerstin Müller (Köln), Ute Koczy, weiterer Abgeordneter und der Fraktion Bündnis 90/Die Grünen [Response of the federal government to a minor request by the members of parliament Winfried Nachtwei, Kerstin Müller (Köln), Ute Koczy, additional members of parliament and the faction of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen], Drucksache 16/9363, Berlin: Deutscher Bundestag, 2008, p.13 (at: http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/16/093/1609363.pdf).

The BMZ's early-warning system consists of indicators to assess the crisis potential in specific societies, which country experts use to measure the crisis levels. The focus here, however, is limited to those countries that are partners of German development policy. For a more detailed examination of different early warning systems, see Spelten (n.16 above).

Weller (see n.27 above), p.9.

Daniel Dückers, Pilotprojekt ‘Gesprächskreis Nigeria’ der deutschen Bundesregierung: Ein Ansatz der inklusiven Politikentwicklung im Rahmen der zivilen Krisenprävention [The Federal Government's Pilot Project ‘Roundtable Nigeria’: An Approach to the Inclusive Policy Development in the Field of Civilian Crisis Prevention], Stuttgart: Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen, 2005.

Federal Government (see n.34 above), p.67.

CDU, CSU and SPD, Working Together for Germany – with Courage and Compassion: Coalition Agreement between the CDU, CSU and SPD, Berlin: Press and Information Office of the Federal Government, 2005, p.131 (at: www.spd.de/show/1683399/Koalitionsvertrag2005_engl.pdf).

Peter Croll, Tobias Debiel and Stephan Klingebiel, ‘Plädoyer für eine integrative deutsche Sicherheitsstrategie: Warum die Bundesregierung sich im europäischen Kontext mit zivilen Akzenten in der Sicherheitsstrategie stärker profilieren sollte’ [Plea for an integrative German security strategy: why the federal government should distinguish itself in the European context by focusing on civilian aspects], Bonn International Centre for Conversion, 2007 (at: www.bicc.de/publications/other/diskussionspapier.pdf); Weller (see n.15 above).

Federal Government (see n.37 above), p.78.

Ibid., pp.15,8.

Ibid., p.83.

Federal Ministry of Defence, White Paper 2006 on German Security Policy and the Future of the Bundeswehr, Berlin, 2006 (at: www.bmvg.de/portal/PA_1_0_P3/PortalFiles/C1256EF40036B05B/W26UWAMT995INFODE/W+2006+eng+DS.pdf?yw_repository=youatweb).

Ibid., p.23.

Ibid., p.7.

Federal Government (see n.5 above), p.87.

On the changing role of armed forces in Europe more generally, see Timothy Edmunds, ‘What Are Armed Forces for? The Changing Nature of Military Forces in Europe’, International Affairs, Vol.82, No.6, 2006, pp.1059–75.

Jochen Hippler, ‘Bedingungen, Kriterien und Grenzen militärischer Interventionen’ [Conditions, criteria and limits of military interventions], in Schoch et al. (see n.12 above), p.117.

Birgit Hofmann, ‘Indentitätskonflikte als Hindernis entwicklungspolitisch-militärischer Zusammenarbeit: das deutsche Engagement im PRT Kunduz aus sozialkonstruktivistischer Perspektive’ [Identity conflicts as an obstacle to cooperation between military and development actors: German activities in the PRT Kunduz from a constructivist point of view], in Christoph Weller (ed.), Zivile Konfliktbearbeitung: Aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse [Civilian Conflict Management: New Research Findings], Duisburg: Institute for Development and Peace, 2007, pp.61–8.

Rainer Glassner and Conrad Schetter, ‘Der deutsche Beitrag zum Wiederaufbau Afghanistans seit 2001: Bundeswehreinsatz und ziviles Engagement’ [The German contribution to Afghan reconstruction since 2001: military mission and civilian efforts], in Schoch et al. (see n.13 above), pp.63–74.

Dan Smith, ‘Towards a Strategic Framework for Peacebuilding: Getting Their Act Together: Overview Report of the Joint Utstein Study of Peacebuilding’, Evaluation Report 1/2004, Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Oslo, 2004, p.30 (at: www.prio.no/files/file44563_rapport_1.04_webutgave.pdf).

Mehler and Dückers (see n.5 above), p.232.

Kaldor et al. (see n.11 above), p.287.

Schneckener (see n.9 above), p.24.

Tobias Debiel and Angelika Spelten, ‘Krisenprävention und Friedensförderung in der deutschen Entwicklungspolitik’ [Crisis Prevention and the Facilitation of Peace in German Development Policy], in R. Mutz, B. Schoch, C. Hauswedell, J. Hippler and U. Ratsch (eds), Friedensgutachten 2006, Münster: LIT Verlag, 2006, p.116.

Andreas Heinemann-Grüder, ‘Konfliktprävention – eine Alternative zu Militäreinsätzen?’ [Conflict prevention – an alternative to military operations?], in Schoch et al. (see n.12 above), p.132.

Federal Government (see n.37 above), p. 83.

Federal Government (see n.5 above), p.95.

Weller (see n.27 above), p.7.

Schneckener (see n.9 above), p.14.

Federal Government (see n.34 above), p.101.

Federal Government (see n.37 above), p.16.

The first report comprises not only a description of the activities undertaken since 2004 but also identifies future priorities. The second interim report simply lists the measures undertaken during the period under review: future policy priorities play only a minor role. This not only provides an obstacle to an assessment of the activities undertaken after 2008 but also raises doubts about the government's long-term commitment to civilian conflict prevention.

See Frank A. Stengel and Christoph Weller, ‘Vier Jahre Aktionsplan “Zivile Krisenprävention” – war das alles?’ [Four years action plan ‘Civilian Crisis Prevention’ – is that it?], GIGA Focus Global 11/2008, German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Hamburg, 2008.

Croll et al. (see n.46 above).

Federal Government (see n.5 above), p.91.

Federal Government (see n.37 above), pp.84–5.

Mehler and Mahnke (see n.38 above), p.25.

Nora Bensahel, ‘Organising for Nation Building’, Survival, Vol.49, No.2, 2007, p.67.

The authors would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for this point.

In general, the term ‘civilian conflict prevention’ can be found only once in the coalition agreement, referring to the role of the German Federal Police in the field of conflict prevention; see CDU, CSU and FDP, Wachstum. Bildung. Zusammenhalt. Der Koalitionsvertrag zwischen CDU, CSU und FDP [Growth. Education. Cohesion. The Coalition Agreement between CDU, CSU and FDP], Berlin: CDU, 2009, p.98 (at: www.cdu.de/doc/pdfc/091026-koalitionsvertrag-cducsu-fdp.pdf).

CDU et al. (see n.77 above), pp.122,124 (our translation).