How Much Culture is Needed? The Intercultural Dilemma of the Bundeswehr in ISAF

Abstract

Using the Bundeswehr operation in command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan as an example, this article follows the assumption that German soldiers find themselves in an ‘intercultural dilemma’. Intercultural competencies are expected of them in theatre but they are not always able to apply them and the strategic–political level responsible for the mandate hardly incorporates the ‘cultural factor’. However, ‘intercultural sensitivity with reservations’ will not win the ‘hearts and minds’ of the local population, or help to guarantee sustainable stability in conflict regions such as Afghanistan. Profound appraisal of the role of local cultures should be of central importance to the tactical–operational level during operations abroad as well as to the strategic–political level at home. The article discusses the tactical–operational level in regard to how much intercultural competence Bundeswehr ‘peacekeepers’ need and what kind of intercultural challenges they encounter in Afghanistan. On a long-term basis, conflict management, peacebuilding and sustainable development can only be achieved in harmony with the people in the area and not against them or over their heads and needs.

Notes

The paper is based on ethnographic field research conducted in 2003–07 in the Balkans, Afghanistan and bases in Germany. I also subsequently conducted interviews with career officers, the results of which are taken into account here. See Maren Tomforde, ‘“Bereit für drei Tassen Tee?” Die Rolle von Kultur für Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr’ [‘Ready for three cups of tea?’ The role of culture in Bundeswehr interventions abroad], in Sabine Jaberg, Heiko Biehl, Günter Mohrmann and Maren Tomforde (eds), Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr: Sozialwissenschaftliche Analysen, Diagnosen und Perspektiven [The Bundeswehr abroad: Socioscientific Analyses, Diagnoses and Perspectives], Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2009, pp.71–91; see also idem, ‘Zu viel verlangt? Interkulturelle Kompetenz während der Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr’ [Too much asked for? Intercultural competence in Bundeswehr peacekeeping missions], in Gerhard Kümmel (ed.), Streitkräfte im Einsatz: Zur Soziologie militärischer Interventionen [Armed Forces and Missions: The Sociology of Military Interventions], Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag, 2008, pp.69–86.

Horst Köhler resigned as federal president in May 2010 after virulent criticism by the media and opposition and governing parties about statements that, inter alia, indicated that military deployments might be necessary in areas such as Afghanistan to protect German interests, including economic ones. He thus voiced ambitions that might be part of a ‘hidden agenda’ for Afghanistan but are not covered either by the Constitution or by the ISAF mandate.

Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre (DCDC), The Significance of Culture to the Military, Joint Doctrine Note 1/09, UK Ministry of Defence, 2009, p.1. The quote at the symposium, held in June 2008, is used in the Doctrine to underline the increasing importance of culture even to high-ranking officers. Apparently, Shaw's statement at the meeting was not made under Chatham House rules.

See, for instance, Eyal Ben-Ari and Efrat Elron, ‘Blue Helmets and White Armor: Multinationalism and Multiculturalism among UN Peacekeeping Forces’, City and Society, Vol.13, 2001, p.276.

DCDC (see n.3 above), pp.1–3.

Robert Rubinstein, Peacekeeping under Fire: Culture and Intervention, Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2008, p.39.

See Thant Myint-U and Elisabeth Sellwood, Knowledge and Multilateral Interventions: The UN's Experience in Cambodia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2000, p.33.

See, for example, Tomforde (n.1 above); Monika Lanik, ‘Kulturelles Kapital im Einsatz: Ethnologie und interkulturelle Kompetenz in der Bundeswehr’ [Cultural resources during missions: anthropology and intercultural competence in the Bundeswehr], in Gertraud Koch and Amelie Franke (eds), Kulturelle Vielfalt als Gestaltungsaufgabe – Ethnologische Beiträge in diversen Praxisfeldern [Cultural Diversity as a Challenge in Organizations – Anthropological Contributions to Various Fields of Practices], St Ingbert: Röhrig Verlag, 2009, pp.99–127; Robert Rubinstein and Craig Zelizer (eds), Building Peace: Practical Reflections from the Field, Sterling, VA: Stylus/Kumarian Press, 2009; Rubinstein (see n.6 above); Stefan Kammhuber, ‘Internationale Militär- und Polizeieinsätze’ [International military and police missions], in Jürgen Straub, Arne Weidemann and Doris Weidemann (eds), Handbuch interkulturelle Kommunikation und Kompetenz. Grundbegriffe – Theorien – Anwendungsfelder [Manual for Intercultural Communication and Competence. Basic Ideas – Theories – Fields of Application], Stuttgart: Metzler Verlag, 2007, pp.707–16; Tanja Hohe, ‘Totem Polls: Indigenous Concepts of “Free and Fair” Elections in East Timor’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.9, No.4, 2002, pp.69–88.

See Tanja Hohe, ‘Clash of Paradigms: International Administration and Local Political Legitimacy in East Timor’, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol.24, No.3, 2002, pp.556–89; Tamara Duffey, ‘Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.7, No.1, pp.142–68.

See Robert Rubinstein, ‘Politics and Peacekeepers: Experience and Political Representation among United States Military Officers’, in Pamela R. Frese and Margaret C. Harrell (eds), Anthropology and the United States Military: Coming of Age in the Twenty-First Century, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp.15–17.

Rubinstein (see n.6 above), p.3.

Ibid., p.7.

Alexander Thomas, Stefan Kammhuber and Gabriel Layes, Interkulturelle Kompetenz. Ein Handbuch für internationale Einsätze der Bundeswehr [Intercultural Competence. A Manual for International Missions of the Bundeswehr], Bonn: Untersuchungen des Psychologischen Dienstes der Bundeswehr, 1997.

See Maren Tomforde, ‘Motivation and Self-Image among German Peacekeepers’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.12, No.4, 2005, p.580.

See Christoph Zürcher and Jan Koehler, ‘Assessing the Contribution of International Actors in Afghanistan’, Working Paper No.7, Special Research Field (SFB) Governance, 2007 (at: www.sfb-governance.de/publicationen/sfbgov_wp/wp7_en/index.html).

Rubinstein (see n.6 above), p.135.

Thomas G. Weiss, ‘Military–Civilian Humanitarianism: The “Age of Innocence” Is Over’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.2, No.2, 1995, pp.160–8. See also Frank Bliss, Peter Merten and Bettina Schmidt (eds), Die Evaluierungspraxis deutscher Entwicklungsorganisationen. Ziele – Umsetzung – Herausforderungen [Evaluation Practices of German Development Organizations. Aims – Implementation – Challenges], Saarbrücken: Verlag für Entwicklungspolitik, 2007.

Speech at Munich Security Conference, 8 February 2009, cited in Süddeutsche Zeitung, ‘Petraeus: Zuhören und Tee trinken’, 9 Feb. 2009, p.6 (author's translation).

In Afghanistan (as well as in Pakistan, India and other Asian countries), it is a widespread tradition to establish trust and confidence, good relations and cooperation in seemingly endless tea sessions. Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin, Three Cups of Tea: One Man's Mission to Promote Peace … One School at a Time, London: Penguin, 2007, p.150.

Süddeutsche Zeitung (see n.18 above), p.6 (author's emphasis and trans.).

Jürgen Lieser and Peter Runge, ‘Mehr Waffen bringen keine Lösung’ [More weapons are not an answer], E + Z [Development and Cooperation], Vol.50, No.1, 2009, p.34.

The ‘Strategic Vision’, presented at the NATO summit, was a first attempt at a holistic NATO concept for the country and comprised: (1) a long-term commitment in Afghanistan; (2) the increasing assumption of responsibility by Afghans; (3) the comprehensive civil–military approach; and (4) the stronger involvement of Afghanistan's neighbouring countries. ISAF's Strategic Vision from 2008 (at: www.nato.int/docu/pr/2008/p08-052e.html) See also Herfried Münkler, ‘Durch den Sehschlitz: Man mache sich nichts vor – Der Westen kann den Krieg in Afghanistan nicht gewinnen’ [Through the observation lens: let us not fool ourselves – the West cannot win the war in Afghanistan], Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6 April 2009, p.11.

Michael Rühle notes that the ‘international community has the authority of definition of the success or failure of its commitment’ and that it always has the option ‘to declare the Afghanistan project a success and to justify a withdrawal referring to the urgently required Afghanization of further development’. Michael Rühle, ‘Afghanistan, Deutschland und die NATO’ [‘Afghanistan, Germany and NATO’], Sicherheit und Frieden, Vol.27, No.1, 2009, pp.1–7.

Ibid., p.2.

In March 2009, the British DCDC published a new doctrine (JDN 1/09), ‘The Significance of Culture to the Military’. The goals of the doctrine were: (1) to ensure coherence with regard to intercultural competence concepts, political guidelines and training measures; (2) to provide military personnel with an understanding of the significance of culture; and (3) to provide guidance for the operational level. DCDC (see n.3 above), p.v. See also Sheila Miyoshi Jager, On the Uses of Cultural Knowledge, Carlisle, PA: US Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2007. In the Bundeswehr's Joint Service Regulation ZDv 10/1 concerning ‘Leadership Development and Civic Education’ or ‘Innere Führung’, intercultural competence is also referred to. However, this is limited to two small sections. See Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (BMVg), Innere Führung. Zentrale Dienstvorschrift 10/1, Bonn, Fü S I 4, 2008. There is no directive on intercultural competence comparable to the British doctrine.

See Lanik (n.8 above), p.135.

At: www.fas.org/blog/secrecy/2006/07/a_new_iraq_culture_smart_card.html.

Tim Ingold, ‘Introduction to Culture’, in Ingold (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology: Humanity, Culture and Social Life, London: Routledge, 2002, pp.331–49. See also Roy d'Andrade, ‘Cultural Meaning Systems’, in Richard Shweder and Robert Levine (eds), Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, p.116.

See Fredrik Barth, ‘Toward a Richer Description and Analysis of Cultural Phenomena’, in Richard Fox and Barbara J. King (eds), Anthropology Beyond Culture, Oxford: Berg, 2002, pp.23–30.

Anthropologist members of the international ‘Mil_Ant_Net-Yahoo group’ referred to this in 2008 in relation to publication of the ‘Iraq Culture Smart Card’. The Yahoo group on the topic ‘Military and Anthropology’ was founded in 2005 by the Canadian military sociologist Brian Selmeski and had more than 600 members in 2010.

See Tomforde, ‘Zu viel verlangt?’ (n.1 above).

See Roberto J. González, Human Science and the Human Terrain, American Counterinsurgency, Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2009; Network of Concerned Anthropologists, The Counter-Counterinsurgency Manual: Or, Notes on Demilitarizing American Society, Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2009; Roberto J. González, ‘“Human Terrain”: Past, Present and Future Applications’, Anthropology Today, Vol.24, No.1, 2008, pp.21–7.

See: www.concerned.anthropologists.googlepages.com/home.

These can be consulted on the Bundeswehr Intranet, ‘Ausbilden, Auftreten und Verhalten (at: Intranet Bw, Dienstvorschriften-Online, dv-online.bundeswehr.org/heeresamt/antra_ausbildungshilfsmittel/pdf/0001_96000_01_ausbhilfe_auftreten_und_verhalten_do_donts.pdf), slides 9–12.

Superiors can obtain these books free of charge for all unit members. For Afghanistan see Bernhard Chiari (ed.), Wegweiser zur Geschichte: Afghanistan [Afghanistan: Guide to its History], 3rd rev. edn, Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2009.

See, for instance, DCDC (n.3 above), pp.3–5; Jager (n.25 above).

Tomforde, ‘Zu viel verlangt?’ (see n.1 above), p.146.

See Zürcher and Koehler (n.15 above).

The Basic Training as well as the Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management Training comprise intercultural elements that, in some cases, do not go beyond a two-hour presentation and are often run late in the evening. BGS Beratungsgesellschaft, ‘Abschlussbericht zur Studie “Interkulturelle Kompetenz” für das Zentrum Operative Information’ [Final report of the survey on ‘intercultural competence’ for the Psychological Operations Centre], internal study, BGS, Mayen/Bonn, 2007.

Tomforde (see n.14 above), p. 580.

See Winrich Kühne, ‘Deutschland und die Friedenseinsätze – vom Nobody zum weltpolitischen Akteur’ [‘Germany and its peace missions – the development from a nobody to a protagonist in world politics’], Zentrum für Internationale Friedenseinsätze, Aufsatz 12/07, Berlin, at: http://213.61.130.172/Downloads/Analysen/Veroeffentlichungen/Deutschland_und_die_Friedenseinsaetze_12_07.pdf.

Tomforde, ‘“Bereit für drei Tassen Tee?”’ (see n.1 above), p.145.

See Waldemar Boczek, ‘Schutzpatron wacht über deutsche Soldaten in Afghanistan’ [‘A patron guards the German soldiers in Afghanistan’], Kompass, Vol.8, No.1, 2008, p.18.

Note, for instance, the association Lachen helfen e.V. (Laughter Helps), which emerged from a private initiative by German soldiers and policemen who independently organized humanitarian aid for children in war and crisis zones (at: www.lachen-helfen.de).

Article 7 of the Legal Status of Military Personnel Act reads, ‘I swear to loyally serve the Federal Republic of Germany and to bravely defend the law and the freedom of the German people.’

Rubinstein (see n.6 above), p.72.

Lanik (see n.8 above), p.137.

See Shweder and Levine (n.28 above).

Rubinstein (see n.6 above), p.36.

Andreas Berns and Roland Wöhrle-Chon, ‘Interkulturelles Konfliktmanagement’ [Intercultural conflict management], in Sven Gareis and Paul Klein (eds), Handbuch Militär und Sozialwissenschaft [Compendium of Military and Social Science], Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, p.355.

Rubinstein (see n.6 above), p.42.