Security Communities, Defence Policy Integration and Peace Operations in the Southern Cone: An Argentine Perspective

Abstract

This article contends that the combined efforts of the ministries of foreign affairs and defence in nine countries of South and Central America, the G9, can be considered a nascent but not yet developed security community. Due to a growing capacity for crisis management which includes the search for political solutions to structural conflict and to political, economic and social deficits in Haiti, the article demonstrates that South American countries are developing a novel concept for post-conflict response. Finally, in the context of democratization, Argentina's participation in peace missions generates domestic elements strongly committed to peace operations.

Notes

Emmanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, ‘A Framework for the Study of Security Communities’, and Ole Wæver, ‘Insecurity, Security, and a Security in the West European Non-war Community’, in Emmanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds), Security Communities, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.29–66 and 69–117.

Adler and Barnett (see n.1 above), pp.30–35; see also Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957.

Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones and Steven E. Miller, Debating the Democratic Peace, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996; Michael W. Doyle, Ways of War and Peace, New York: W.W. Norton, 1997; David A. Lake, ‘Powerful Pacifists: Democratic States and War’, American Political Science Review, Vol.86, No.1, 1992, pp.24–37.

Wæver (see n.1 above), pp.70–78.

Barry Buzan and Øle Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp.51–65.

See the Action Plan outlined at: www.cdsunasur.org

See, e.g., Luis Tibiletti, ‘Haití en diez aciertos’ [Haiti in Ten Hits], Página/12 (Buenos Aires), 16 June 2004, at: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/subnotas/36786-12890-2004-06-16.html; Juan Gabriel Tokatlián, ‘El desacierto de enviar tropas a Haití’ [The Misstep of Sending Troops to Haiti], Página/12, 13 June 2004, at: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-36679-2004-06-13.html; Oscar Raúl Cardozo, ‘Misión de paz a Haití: un debate mal barajado’ [Peace Mission to Haiti: A Bad Debate Shuffled], Clarín (Buenos Aires), 24 June 2004, at: http://old.clarin.com/diario/2004/06/24/elmundo/i-02103.htm; Juan Gabriel Tokatlián, ‘¿Para qué seguir en Haití?’ [Why go on in Haiti?], La Nación (Buenos Aires), 19 Sept. 2007, at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=945297; Juan Gabriel Tokatlián, ‘Haití, el peligro de un neoprotectorado’ [Haiti, the Danger of a Neo-protectorate], La Nación, 18 Jan. 2006, at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=773148; Ernesto López, ‘Diplomacia sin indiferencia’ [Diplomacy without Indifference], Clarín, 27 Aug. 2005, at: http://old.clarin.com/diario/2005/08/27/opinion/o-03902.htm; Monica Hirst, ‘La intervención sudamericana en Haití’ [The South American Intervention in Haiti], FRIDE Comentary (Madrid), 20 April 2007.

Walter E. Kretchik, ‘Haiti's Quest for Democracy: Historical Overview’, in John T. Fishel and Andrés Sáenz (eds), Capacity Building for Peacekeeping. The Case of Haiti, Washington, DC: National Defence University Press, 2007, pp.8–34.

Argentine Ministry of Defence, ‘Vice Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Defence, of Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay (2 × 4)’, press release, Buenos Aires, 13 May 2005.

Argentine Ministry of Defence, press release, Santiago de Chile, 19 Aug. 2005.

Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, ‘Haití: un espejo para América Latina’ [Haiti: A Mirror for Latin America], Globalización, Revista Mensual de Economía, Sociedad y Cultura (Buenos Aires), 12 April 2005, at: http://rcci.net/globalizacion/2005/fg521.htm

Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars, London: Zed Books, 2001, pp.44–74; Stanley Foundation, ‘Review and Vitalization of Peacebuilding. Conference Report’, Muscatine, 2010, at: www.betterpeace.org/files/StanleyFoundation_Rpt_Review_and_Vitalization_of_Peacebuilding_1July2010.pdf, p.8; Stephen Krasner, ‘The Case for Shared Sovereignty’, Journal of Democracy, Vol.16, No.1, 2005, pp.69–72.

Arturo C. Sotomayor, ‘Why Some States Participate in UN Peace Missions while Others do not: An Analysis of Civil–Military Relations and its Effects on Latin America's Contributions to Peacekeeping Operations’, Security Studies, Vol.19, No,1, 2010, pp.160–95.

Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, ‘The Changing Face of Peace Operations’, 14 May 2010, at: www.international.gc.ca/peace-paix/change.aspx?lang=en

Pearson Peacekeeping Centre, ‘Handling Crises in Peace Operations: A Case Study of MINUSTAH’, Toronto, 2010, at: www.peaceoperations.org/wp-content/files_flutter/1278349902LimaSeminarReport_FINAL_en.pdf

Centro de Notícias ONU, ‘Haití: Representante de la ONU urge a fortalecer instituciones’ [Haiti: UN Representative Urged to Strengthen Institutions], 29 Mar. 2010, at: www.un.org/spanish/News/fullstorynews.asp?newsID=17995&criteria1=Haiti

See, e.g., Claire Marshall, ‘Fear and Frustration in Haiti’, BBC News, 16 April, 2005, at: www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3507787.stm; Instituto para Justicia y Democracia en Haiti, Programa de las Américas, Silver City, NM: International Relations Centre, 2006, at: http://ircamericas.org/esp/3689; Christophe Wargny, ‘En Haïti, un Etat à reconstruire’ [In Haiti, a State in Need of Reconstruction], Le Monde Diplomatique, Feb. 2004, at: http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/dossiers/haiti

Argentina, Ministry of Defence, press release, 19 Aug. 2005.

United Nations, ‘Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations’, UN doc., A/55/305-S/2000/809, 21 Aug. 2000; Johanna Mendelson Forman, ‘Restoring Hope: Enhancing Governance and Participation’, in Robert C. Orr (ed.), Winning the Peace: An American Strategy for Post-conflict Reconstruction, Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2004, pp.72–9; Winrich Kühne, ‘From Peacekeeping to Peacebuilding’, in Luc Reychler and Tania Paffenholz (eds), Peacebuilding: A Field Guide, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001, pp.376–82.

‘Haití: conferencia de donantes’ [Haiti: Donor Conference], bbcmundo.com, 19 Mar. 2005, at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_4363000/4363361.stm; see also FLACSO Argentina, ‘Reconstrucción de Haití’ [Reconstruction of Haiti], at: www.haitiargentina.org/Cooperacion-Internacional/Cooperacion-al-desarrollo/Reconstruccion-de-Haiti

‘Ministro Dominicano de Exteriores dice asignación ayuda no se cumple’ [Dominican Foreign Minister Says Aid Allocation is not Fulfilled], EFE, Madrid, 2 Dec. 2006. The World Bank reported that ‘The Conference drew representatives from 30 countries and 32 international organizations. It sought $924 million to support the Haitian Government's Interim Co-operation Framework (ICF) outlining Haiti's priority needs and programs over the next two years. The ICF had identified $924 million as the two-year funding gap in an overall needs assessment totalling $1.37billion.’ World Bank, ‘Haiti: Over $1 Billion Pledged at International Donors Conference on Haiti’, press release, no. 2005/27/LAC, at: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20228354~menuPK:34466~pagePK:64003015~piPK:64003012~theSitePK:4607,00.html. See also Bureau for International Development, ‘BID aprueba estrategia de transición para Haití 2005–2006 para programa de operaciones de US$ 270 millones’ [IDB Approves Haiti Transition Strategy for 2005–2006 for Operations Program of US$270 Million], press release, 14 Mar. 2005, at: www.iadb.org/comunicados-de-prensa/2005-03/spanish/bid-aprueba-estrategia-de-transici0n-para-haiti-20052006-para-programa-de-operac-1410.html

Andrew J. Shapiro, ‘Haiti: U.S. Support for International Peacekeeping Helps Promote Recovery’, 5 May 2010, US Department of State official blog, at: http://blogs.state.gov/index.php/site/entry/haiti_international_peacekeeping; Faustin Caille, ‘Haïti, six mois après’ [Haiti after Six Months], ReliefWeb, July 2010, at: www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/KHII-87A3JN?OpenDocument&rc=2&emid=EQ-2010-000009-HTI

Silvia Román, ‘La Conferencia de Donantes compromete 5.300 millones de dólares para Haití’ [Donor Conference pledges US$5,300 Million for Haiti], El Mundo (Madrid), 1 April 2010, at: www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/04/01/.../1270074825.html

Stephanie Kage, ‘New Powers for Global Change: Brazil at the UN, Dialogue on Globalization’, New York Fact Sheet, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2006, p.1, at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/global/50415.pdf

World Bank, ‘Brazil is First Major Contributor to Haiti Reconstruction Fund’, Washington, DC, 11 May 2010, at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/0,,contentMDK:22577301~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:258554,00.html?cid=ISG_E_WBWeeklyUpdate_NL

‘Nilda Garré destacó el papel de las Fuerzas Armadas en emergencias y catástrofes’ [Nilda Garre Emphasized the Armed Forces' Role in Emergencies and Disasters], ProDiario.com.ar (Buenos Aires), 13 Mar. 2010, at: www.prodiario.com.ar/despachos2.asp?cod_Des=326477&ID_Seccion=33; ‘La ONU solicitará más cascos azules bolivianos para Haití’ [UN Will Request Additional Bolivian Peacekeepers for Haiti], Los Tiempos (Cochabamba), 12 July 2010, at: www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/nacional/20100315/la-onu-solicitara-mas-cascos-azules-bolivianos-para_61667_ 111633.html; ‘Prórroga de permanencia de tropas en Haití’ [Extension of Troops Staying in Haiti], La República (Montevideo), 18 Mar. 2010, at: www.larepublica.com.uy/politica/403718-prorroga-de-permanencia-de-tropas-en-haiti; ‘Haití: Confirman muerte de 16 “cascos azules” tras terremoto’ [Haiti: Confirmed Deaths of 16 ‘Blue Helmets’ after Earthquake], Teletrece online (Concepción), 24 Feb. 2010, at: http://tele13.13.cl/noticias/internacional/11924.htm; ‘Fallecieron seis militares uruguayos en Haití tras accidente aéreo’ [Six Uruguayan Soldiers Died in Haiti after Plane Crash], Teledoce.com (Montevideo), 9 Oct. 2009, at: www.teledoce.com/noticia/2344_Fallecieron-seis-militares-uruguayos-en-Haiti-tras-accidente-aereo

UN Secretary-General, ‘Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti’, 2 Feb. 2006, at: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/226/02/PDF/N0622602.pdf?OpenElement

See http://www.mindef.gov.ar/paz_antartica.html

Rut Diamint, ‘Crisis, Democracy and the Military’, in Edward Epstein and David Pion-Berlin (eds), Promises Betrayed? Argentina in an Age of Crisis, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006; Francisco Rojas Aravena, ‘La Construcción de una Alianza Estratégica. El caso de Chile y Argentina’ [Construction of a Strategic Alliance: The Case of Chile and Argentina], in Jorge I. Domínguez (ed.), Conflictos Territoriales y democracia en América Latina [Territorial Conflicts and Democracy in Latin America], Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2003, pp.113–25.

Oscar Camilión, ‘La presencia Argentina en misiones de paz’ [Argentina's Participation in Peace Missions], Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad, Vol.8, No.3, 1993, p.61.

See Ministry of Defence, White Paper on National Defence, Buenos Aires, 1998, at: www.defensenet.ser2000.org.ar/Archivo/libro-argentina-eng/arg-part1.htm, ch.5,7.

As an example of resistance to involvement in peace operations see the website Zona Militar, and the officer's statement: ‘In Cyprus in 1994 I was not voluntary … But once I was there, I didn't want to return’, at: www.zonamilitar.com.ar/foros/showthread.php?t=15472&page=5. See also the armed forces publications Gazeta Marinera, at: www.gacetamarinera.com.ar and Revista Soldados, at: www.soldadosdigital.com

Ashton B. Carter, William J. Perry and John D. Steinbruner, A New Concept of Cooperative Security, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992.

UN Secretary-General, An Agenda for Peace. Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping, 1992, at: www.un.org/Docs/SG/agpeace.html. See also Robert O. Keohane and Lisa L. Martin, ‘The Promise of Institutionalist Theory’, International Security, Vol.20, No.1, 1995, pp.39–51; Michael W. Doyle, ‘Liberalism and World Politics Revisited’, in Charles W. Kegley (ed.), Controversies in International Relations Theory: Realism and the Neoliberal Challenge, New York: St Martin's Press, 1995.

‘Los Cascos Blancos tienen que ser una herramienta de ayuda social’ (The White Helmets Have to be a Tool of Social Assistance), Página 12, 5 Dec. 2003.

OAS Declaration, ‘Coordination of Volunteers in the Hemisphere in Response to Natural Disasters and the Fight against Hunger and Poverty – White Helmets Initiative’ (Adopted at the Fourth Plenary Session, 5 June 2007), AG/DEC. 55 (XXXVII O/07), at: www.oas.org/dsd/Generalassembly/ResolutionsGASDfinal.pdf

See the Argentine official document: Gabriel Fuks, Carlos A. Villalba and Alfredo Ladillinsky, ‘White Helmets, Model of Solidarity Participation Based on Volunteer Work’, at: www.cascosblancos.gov.ar/nav-izquierda/biblioteca/Guide%20volunteer%20work.pdf

See, e.g., Federico Merke, ‘La Argentina y su Política Exterior’ [Argentina and its Foreign Policy], in Juan Quintar and Carlos Gabetta (eds), Pensar la Nación. Conferencias del Bicentenario [Thinking the Nation. Bicentennial Conferences], Buenos Aires: Capital Intelectual, 2010, pp.119–37; Carlos Escudé, ‘La muerte de la política exterior: el callejón sin salida de un estado parasitario’ [The Death of Foreign Policy: The Dead End of a Parasitic State], in Soluciones de Políticas Públicas para un País en Crisis [Public Policy Solutions for a Country in Crisis], Buenos Aires: Fundación Atlas, 2003, pp.151–70, at: www.atlas.org.ar/articulos/articulos2.asp?Id=871; Miryam Colacrai, ‘Pensar la Política Exterior desde una lectura renovada de la “Autonomía”’ [Foreign Policy Thinking from a Renewed Reading of ‘Autonomy’], in La Política Exterior del Gobierno de Kirchner [The Foreign Policy of President Kirchner], Rosario: Centro de Estudios de Relaciones Internacionales de Rosario, 2007.

‘Speech of Minister of Defence Dr Nilda Garré at the Farewell of the 8th Argentinean Contingent for MINUSTAH Mission in Haiti’, CAECOPAZ, Buenos Aires, 24 Jan. 2008, at: www.mindef.gov.ar/discursos_discurso_garre.asp?Id=755

See the webpage of the Argentine Ministry of Defence, at: www.mindef.gov.ar/genero.html

‘Cristina Kirchner homenajeará a mujeres voluntarias en Haití’ [Cristina Kirchner will Honour Women Volunteers in Haiti], Infobae (Buenos Aires), 7 Mar. 2010.

‘La Presidente visitó tropas en Haití y viajó a la Cumbre’ [The President Visits Troops in Haiti and Travels to the Summit], Infobae, 7 Mar. 2008.

International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001.

See Charles C. Moskos, John Allen Williams and David R. Segal (eds), The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000; Albrecht Schnabel and Hans-Georg Ehrhart, ‘Post-conflict Societies and the Military: Challenges and Problems of Security Sector Reform’, in Albrecht Schnabel and Hans-Georg Ehrhart (eds), Security Sector Reform and Post-conflict Peacebuilding, Tokyo: UN University Press, 2005, p.3.

Stanley Foundation (see n.12 above), p.8.