Reintegrating former fighters in the Congo: ambitious objectives, limited results

ABSTRACT

Current scholarly works in International Relations grew increasingly preoccupied over the effectiveness and programmatic failure of international assistance, especially with regard to issues pertaining to the ‘security–development’ nexus and the post-9/11 ‘securitization’ agenda. Complex Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) programmes implemented worldwide since the late 1980s became a key component of international post-conflict intervention. With the extension of UN peacebuilding operations, DDR packages, which initially embraced short-term security goals in mere support of negotiated peace settlements, now entail significantly broader development objectives. Located at the interface of security and development approaches, DDR’s third phase, reintegration, has yielded limited outcomes despite growing efforts to implement long-term economic and social recovery activities. Using micro-level data derived from extensive fieldwork conducted in the Democratic Republic of Congo, this article argues that the challenges encountered in implementing reintegration might originate from high politicization of programme outcomes and recurrent neglect of local programme recipients and the socio-economic context in which they evolve. Despite formal endorsement of broad development objectives, this affected reintegration processes and their outcomes since what was really implemented consisted mainly of minimal activities prioritizing immediate security gains.

Acknowledgements

This research was only possible thanks to the help and support of my Master’s Thesis supervisor Professor Keith Krause and second reader Oliver Jütersonke. I also owe the smooth unfolding of my field research despite serious security threats in Goma to the many Congolese friends and partners, including the staff of Congolese NGOs and international organizations, who always made sure I conducted my research in a safe and welcoming environment. I also must extend my gratitude to my friends and family who have continually provided me with psychological and logistical support. Finally, I would like to address my most sincere thanks to Jonathan Austin and Dr Sudakshini Perera for proof-editing this article and who provided me with valuable comments and novel ideas.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

About the author

Stephanie Perazzone is a PhD candidate in Political Science/IR at the Institute of International and Development Studies (IHEID) and is currently affiliated to the Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding (CCDP) as a Doctoral Researcher on a Doc.CH grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation. She previously worked at the UNDP’s country and field offices in the DRC and conducted extensive field research as a Graduate and Undergraduate Student in Rwanda and the DRC. She gained academic and field expertise in conflict resolution and peacebuilding as a research assistant and chapter contributor at the CCDP and the Small Arms Survey. She pursues a research agenda that covers international issues such as state fragility and failure, international military and development intervention, security promotion and state transformation in Africa’s Great Lakes Region where she continues to conduct field research.

ORCiD

Stephanie Perazzone http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1308-4605

Notes

1 See Kaldor, New and Old Wars; Duffield, Global Governance.

2 The First DDR programme dates back to 1989 in Central America.

3 World Bank, Regional Strategy, 7.

4 UN IAWG, The Integrated DDR Standards, section 4.30, 2.

5 See Hazen, ‘Understanding “Reintegration”’, 109.

6 Vogel, ‘Congo’s Immobilised Demobilisation Programme’.

7 See also Richards, ‘Demobilization’.

8 See World Bank, Technical Annex and Gouvernement RDC, PNDDR.

9 MDRP, Final Report, 18.

10 The DRC is ranked 176th out of 188 countries on the 2015 UNDP Human Development Index 2015 in its Human Development Report, 210.

11 For a qualitative assessment on the situation of ex-combatants in Kinshasa, see Geenen, Former Combatants.

12 Or, what Jennings termed ‘securitisation of reintegration’ in ‘The Political Economy’.

13 Berdal and Ucko, ‘Introduction’, 316.

14 See Richards, ‘Demobilization’; Marriage, ‘Flip-Flop Rebel’; Swarbrick, Avoiding Disarmament Failure; Klem et al., Struggle after Combat; Thakur, ‘Demilitarising Militias’.

15 Edmonds et al., ‘Disarmament’.

16 Read Wilén, ‘Identifying the Spoilers’; Clément, ‘Security Sector Reform’; Scherrer, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo’.

17 For further details see, inter alia, the United Nations Secretary General, Agenda for Peace, its Supplement, and An Agenda for Development or the United Nations General Assembly, World Summit Outcome Document.

18 Hirschmann, ‘Peacebuilding’.

19 Tschirgi, ‘Security and Development Policies’, 44.

20 Klingebiel, ‘Introduction’, 3.

21 Fitz-Gerald, ‘Addressing the Security–Development Nexus’, 107.

22 Giustozzi, ‘Introduction’, 11–13.

23 Muggah, ‘Introduction’, 14.

24 See Wilén, ‘Identifying the Spoilers’.

25 Jennings, ‘Political Economy’, 480–4.

26 Muggah and O’Donnell, ‘Next Generation’.

27 Ibid., 3.

28 Duffield, Global Governance, 16.

29 Berdal and Ucko, ‘Introduction’, 317.

30 Jennings, ‘Unclear Ends’.

31 Ibid.; Munive and Jakobsen, ‘Revisiting DDR’.

32 Krause and Jütersonke, ‘Peace, Security and Development’.

33 See Özerdem, ‘A Re-Conceptualisation’.

34 Bowd and Özerdem, ‘How to Assess’.

35 Pouligny, The Politics, 19.

36 Vinay Bhatia and Muggah, ‘Politics of Demobilization’, 127. For additional reading material on locally owned reintegration and DDR conceptual re-thinking, see, inter alia, Matveeva, ‘Tajikistan’; Pugel, ‘Measuring Reintegration’; Özerdem, ‘A Re-Conceptualisation’; and Verkoren et al., ‘From DDR to Security Promotion’.

37 Read Abrahamsen, ‘Blair's Africa’.

38 See Helman and Ratner, ‘Saving Failed States’ and Zartman, Collapsed States.

39 See Duffield, ‘War as a Network Enterprise’.

40 See Duffield, Global Governance.

41 Simpson, ‘From Inter-Dependence to Conflation’, 264.

42 See Pugel, ‘Measuring Reintegration’.

43 See UN DPKO, DDR in Peace Operations; and Muggah and O’Donnell, ‘Next Generation’.

44 Duffield, Global Governance, 16.

45 UN IAWG on DDR, Operational Guide, 24.

46 See UN DPKO, Second Generation.

47 Colletta and Muggah, ‘Context Matters’.

48 Torjesen, ‘New Avenues’, 416.

49 Prunier, Africa's World War. See also Stearns, Dancing; Prunier, Africa's World War; Englebert, ‘Why Congo Persists’; Baaz and Stern, ‘Making Sense’; Autesserre, The Trouble.

50 Vogel, ‘Is DDR an Epitome’.

51 Conoir, Programme National, 138.

52 Conoir, Ending War, 6.

53 See www.tdrp.net/.

54 Conoir, Programme National, 1.

55 Interview with MONUSCO high-level Staff, 1 Feb. 2013.

56 World Bank, Technical Annex, 10.

57 CONADER, Stratégie Nationale, 5.

58 World Bank, Regional Strategy, iii.

59 World Bank, Technical Annex, 10.

60 Gouvernement RDC, Programme National, 17.

61 Ibid., 26.

62 CONADER, Stratégie Nationale, 32.

63 Ibid., 5.

64 Ibid., 14 (emphasis by author).

65 Ibid., 5.

66 See MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites.

67 MacGaffey, Real Economy.

68 CONADER, Stratégie Nationale, 7.

69 Ibid., 10–11.

70 World Bank, Technical Annex, 15–16.

71 Interviews were conducted confidentially and names of interviewees are withheld. Interview with the ILO Programme Manager, 13 Aug. 2012.

72 Interview with high-level UE-PNDRR Official, 18 Jan. 2013.

73 Interview with high-level World Bank Official, 16 Jan. 2013.

74 Ibid.

75 Conoir, Programme National, 33.

76 Hazen, ‘Understanding “Reintegration”’.

77 Marriage, ‘Flip-Flop Rebel’, 296 (emphasis by author).

78 World Bank, Regional Strategy, 55.

79 MDRP, Final Report, 46.

80 Ibid.

81 Interviews with: high-level World Bank Official, 1 Aug. 2012, Human Dignity in the World (HdW) Staff, 13 Feb. 2013; MONUSCO Disarmament, Demobilization, Repatriation / Reintegration and Resettlement (DDR/RR) Official, 1 Feb. 2013.

82 Interviews with: former UNDP Staff, 7, 21 and 29 July 2012; UNDP high-level Official, 4 July 2012; and CARE International Staff, 10, 18 and 31 July 2012 and 24 Jan. 2013.

83 Interviews with: former UNDP Staff, 29 July 2012; MONUSCO DDR/RR Official, 1 Feb. 2013; UN Habitat Staff, 27 July 2012; and International Organization for Migration (IOM) Staff, 21 July 2013; high-level World Bank Official, 15 Aug. 2012.

84 Conoir, Programme National, 103–5.

85 Interviews with: two Ex-Combatants, 29 Jan. 2013; Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012; high-level Staff at Réseau pour la Réforme du Secteur de Sécurité et de la Justice (RRSSJ), 12 Feb. 2013; and with three Ex-Combatants, 29 Jan. 2013.

86 Interview with UN Habitat Staff, 27 July 2012.

87 Ibid.

88 Interview with UE-PNDDR Desk Officer, 25 July 2012.

89 Interview with high-level World Bank Official, 16 Jan. 2013.

90 Ibid.

91 Interview with high-level UE-PNDDR Official, 18 Jan. 2013.

92 Interviews with: HdW Staff, 13 Feb. 2013; MONUSCO DDR/RR Official, 1 Feb. 2013; and former UNDP Official, 29 July 2012.

93 MDRP, End of Program Evaluation, 66.

94 Interview with HdW Staff, 13 Feb. 2013.

95 Interview with MONUSCO DDR/RR Official, 1 Feb. 2013.

96 Interviews with: ILO Programme Manager at Headquarters in Kinshasa, 13 Aug. 2012; UE-PNDDR Desk Officer, 25 July 2012.

97 The informant said: ‘The World Bank cannot trust state institutions to manage the funds and is tempted to go through other IOs instead of the Ministry of Defence.’ Interview with MONUSCO DDR/RR Official, 1 Feb. 2013.

98 UNDP, ‘Rapport de Progrès’, 3.

99 ETN, ‘Rapport d’Avancement’, 10.

100 Interview with FARDC 8th Region Colonel at Bweremana Transit Camp, 31 Jan. 2013.

101 Interview with UN Habitat Staff, 27 July 2012.

102 Interview with: high-level World Bank Official, 16 Jan. 2013 and FARDC 8th Region Colonel at Bweremana Transit Camp, 31 Jan. 2013.

103 Interview with high-level UE-PNDDR Official, 18 Jan. 2013.

104 Interview with Sanoki Staff, 20 July 2012.

105 Interview with former UNDP Staff, 29 July 2013; interview with HdW Staff, 28 Jan. 2013.

106 Interview with HdW Staff, 28 Jan. 2013.

107 Interview with Sanoki Staff, 24 Jan. 2013.

108 Damiba, Rapport d’Evaluation, 2–3 (emphasis by author).

109 Interviews with high-level World Bank Official, 15 Aug. 2012 and 18 Jan. 2013.

110 Damiba, Rapport d’Evaluation, 2.

111 Interview with CARE International Staff, 10 July 2012.

112 Interview with: HdW Staff, 28 Jan. 2013 and high-level UE-PNDDR Official, 18 Jan. 2013.

113 Interview with CARE International Staff, 31 July 2013.

114 Interview with ILO Programme Manager, 13 Aug. 2012.

115 Interview with CARE International Staff, 31 July 2012; interview with Ex-Combatant, 29 Jan. 2013.

116 Interview with Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012.

117 MDRP, End of Program Evaluation, 20.

118 Ibid., 30.

119 CONADER, Stratégie Nationale, 14.

120 Interview with Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2013.

121 Interview with Ex-Combatants, 30 Jan. 2013.

122 Interview with CARE International Staff, 31 July 2013.

123 Interview with female Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012.

124 The MDRP, End of Program Evaluation, 34–5.

125 CONADER, Stratégie Nationale, 7.

126 Ibid., 15.

127 Interview with Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012.

128 Ibid.

129 Interview with CARE International Staff, 31 July 2012.

130 Interviews with: three Ex-Combatants, 29 Jan. 2013; Equipe d’Education et d’Encadrement des Traumatisés de Nyiragongo (ETN) Staff, 22 Jan. 2013; HdW Staff, 1 Aug. 2012, HdW Staff, 25 and 28 Jan. 2013; HdW Staff, 13 Feb. 2013; Sanoki Staff, 20 July 2012; Sanoki Staff, 24 Jan. 2013.

131 One exception was the African Bank programme PARSEC, which reportedly engaged in ensuring better project ownership by local communities.

132 Interview with high-level World Bank Official, 16 Jan. 2013.

133 Interview with ILO Programme Manager, 13 Aug. 2012; IOM, ‘Rapport Intermédiaire’, 3.

134 Interview with three Ex-Combatants and one Community Member, 30 Jan. 2013; interviews with: ETN Staff in Goma, 22 Jan. 2013; two HdW Staff, 1 Aug. 2012, 25 and 28 Jan. 2013 and 13 Feb. 2013; Sanoki Staff, 20 July 2012 and 24 Jan. 2013; high-level Staff at RRSSJ, 12 Feb. 2013.

135 Interviews with: former UNDP Official, 4 and 29 July 2012; ILO Programme Manager, 13 Aug. 2012.

136 Interview with UN Habitat Staff, 27 July 2012.

137 Interview with former UNDP Official, 29 July 2012; interview with UE-PNDDR Desk Officer, 25 July 2012.

138 Interview with DDR and Armed Group Expert, 29 Oct. 2015.

139 Interview with HdW Staff, 25 Jan. 2013.

140 Interview with DDR and Armed Group Expert, 29 Oct. 2015.

141 Interview with high-level World Bank Official, 16 Jan. 2013.

142 Interview with Sanoki Staff, 24 Jan. 2013.

143 Interview with FARDC 8th region Colonel at Bweremana Transit Camp, 31 Jan. 2013.

144 Ibid.; and Sanoki Staff, 20 July 2012 and HdW Staff, 13 Feb. 2013.

145 Interview with female Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012; interviews with two Ex-Combatants, 29 Jan. 2013; and Ex-Combatant, 1 Aug. 2012.

146 Interview with high-level World Bank Official, 15 Aug. 2012.

147 Interview with ETN Staff, 31 July 2012.

148 Muggah and Krause, ‘Closing the Gap’, 138.

149 Vinay Bhatia and Muggah, ‘Politics of Demobilization’; Munive and Jakobsen, ‘Revisiting DDR’; Stankovic and Torjesen, Fresh Insights.

150 See Reno, ‘Congo’.