https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6616-269X
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ABSTRACT
The increasingly complex and differentiated field of security sector and police reform has given rise to extensive research into such processes, but also the stalemate and contradictions they are facing. Recent analyses have shown how civil society actors can successfully influence reform and hold authorities accountable, but are also facing limits in terms of their own expertise, capacity and representativeness. This article presents new evidence of interactions between civil society, state authorities and international organizations on the basis of participatory fieldwork and public discourse analysis in the Kyrgyz Republic in Central Asia. Taking particular interest in practices, expertise and knowledge production, I show how the organization in focus, an NGO network promoting alternative approaches to police reform, had to live up to different roles in trying to effect change: that of activists who mobilize popular support; of experts who apply novel, participatory community security approaches in piloting communities; and lastly, that of knowledge producers providing evidence of the need for reform. These roles and practices, and their implications for the network’s reform impact are critically assessed and, in conclusion, developed into the need for future research.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on a chapter from my PhD thesis (Lottholz Citation2018) and is available in an abridged Russian translation at the George Washington University’s Central Asia Program Paper Series (CAP Paper No. 230). Earlier versions of the manuscript were presented at the 2019 International Studies Association (ISA) Convention in Toronto and European International Studies Association (EISA) Conference in Sofia, where William Greaves and Monique Beerli provided especially helpful comments. My biggest gratitude goes to the team and friends at the Civic Union ‘For Reforms and Result’ for sharing their perspectives, experiences and extensive feedback making this research possible. Many thanks also to the anonymous reviewers for helpful and constructive comments and to the journal editor and team for the great support for this publication.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on Contributor
Philipp Lottholz is a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Collaborative Research Centre/Transregio 138 ‘Dynamics of Security’ and the Institute for Sociology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Germany. His research focuses on political and social change in post-Socialist Central Asia and Eastern Europe, and in particular on evolving trajectories of peacebuilding and security practices.
Notes
1 See Sahin, “Rhetoric and Practice”; Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform”; Caparini, “Civil Society”.
2 Sedra (ed.), The Future of Security Sector Reform, and especially chapters by Ball and Albrecht, Stepputat and Andersen, give a good overview on the wide range of actors and analytical approaches explored in the wider work of the same authors, such as Albrecht et al., Involving Non-State and Customary Actors.
3 Stone and Ward, “Democratic Policing”.
4 See Schroeder and Chappuis, “New Perspectives,” 134.
5 See Gordon, “Security Sector Reform,” 130 ff.; Mobekk “Security Sector Reform,” 233–9; Caparini, “Civil Society,” 251 ff.
6 See Ibid.
7 Sedra, “The Futre is Non-State”; Albrecht and Buur Citation2009, “Uneasy Marriage”.
8 Müller and Hochmüller, “Regime Protection”, Müller, “De-monopolizing”.
9 Marat, “Mimicking ‘Broken Windows’ Policing”; The Politics of Police Reform.
10 Bliesemann de Guevara and Kostic, “Knowledge Production”; Berling and Büger, “Expertise”.
11 For instance, Büger and Gadinger, International Practice Theory.
12 Berling, “Science and Securitization”; Adler and Pouliot, “International Practices”.
13 Müller, “De-monopolizing”; The Punitive City.
14 Ibid.
15 Politics of Police Reform.
16 Marat, “Mimicking ‘Broken Windows’ Policing”.
17 See Schröder and Chappuis, “New Perspectives,” 135; Stone and Ward, “Democratic Policing”.
18 For instance, Caparini, “Civil Society”; Mobekk “Security Sector Reform”; Gordon, “Security Sector Reform”; Marat, “Mimicking ‘Broken Windows’ Policing”.
19 See Lottholz, Post-Liberal Statebuilding, 384–6 for data inventory.
20 See e.g. Albrecht et al., Involving Non-State and Customary Actors; Sedra, “The Future is Non-State”.
21 “Uneasy Marriage”.
22 Ibid., 390.
23 Ibid., 400, 402.
24 Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform”; Caparini, “Civil Society”; Gordon, “Security Sector Reform”; Marat, Politics of Police Reform.
25 This designation and the official country name ‘Kyrgyz Republic’ are used interchangeably.
26 Albrecht and Buur, “Uneasy Marriage,” 401.
27 Politics of Police Reform, chapter 5.
28 As for instance in Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform”; Caparini, “Civil Society”.
29 “Security Sector Reform,” 9 ff.
30 Saferworld, “Saferworld Kyrgyzstan,” 6.
31 Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 238, Caparini, “Civil Society,” 251.
32 “Knowledge Production,” 6.
33 Ibid., 7.
34 Ibid., 9.
35 Berling and Büger, “Expertise”.
36 International Practice Theory.
37 Ibid., 4.
38 Adler-Nissen, Bourdieu in International Relations; Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice.
39 Ibid., 79.
40 “Science and Securitization,” 393.
41 Ibid., 388, original emphasis.
42 Ibid., 393.
43 As pointed out by Marat, Politics of Police Reform, chapters 5, 7, 8 and 10; Müller, “De-monopolizing,” 48 ff., Punitive City, ch. 4.
44 “De-monopolizing”; see also Punitive City.
45 Müller, “De-monopolizing,” 56.
46 Ibid., 48.
47 Ibid, 50.
48 Ibid., 37.
49 See for instance Leeds, “Serving States,” 25–6.
50 “Regime Protection,” 390.
51 “Mimicking ‘Broken Windows’ Policing,” 13.
52 Marat, Politics of Police Reform.
53 Ibid., 89–90.
54 Ibid., 99.
55 See Gordon, “Security Sector Reform,” 9 ff., Saferworld, “Saferworld Kyrgyzstan”.
56 Petition accessed at https://reforma.kg/sites/default/files/petition_20.02.12.pdf. All links accessed 20 October 2019. All translations from Russian documents are the author’s.
57 The terms militsiia and politsiia are used synonymously for ‘police’ in Russian, although militsiia is clearly associated with Soviet structures and policing practices.
58 Альтернативная концепция реформы МВД (проект Программы реформирования государственной системы обеспечения общественной безопасности) [Alternative conception for the reform of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (draft Programme for the reform of the state system for public security provision)], Civic Union ‘For Reforms and Result’, October 2012, https://www.reforma.kg/sites/default/files/alternative_concept_oct12.pdf.
59 See protocol from the meeting (in Russian): https://reforma.kg/sites/default/files/minutes_of_meeting_with_pm_13.2.2013.pdf.
60 See, for instance, Marat, Politics of Police Reform, 91 ff.
61 Available at: https://mvd.kg/index.php/rus/program-gov/reform.
62 Russian: Sovet po reformirovaniiu i razvitiiu sistemy pravoporiadka v Kyrgyzskoi Respublike.
63 Civic Union, “Monitoring the Reform,” 7. Conversation with Members of Civic Union, Bishkek, 14 August 2015.
64 As stated in the protocol of the meeting on 20 September 2014; Obzor No 3 khoda reform OVD KR [Review No 3 on the progress of the law enforcement organ reforms in the Kyrgyz Republic]; Civic Union ‘For Reforms and Result’, October 2014, https://reforma.kg/sites/default/files/rev_3_10.14_0.pdf, p. 4.
65 Civic Union, “Police Reform in Kyrgyzstan,” 13.
66 Marat, Politics of Police Reform, 93.
67 Conversation, Bishkek, 26 June 2015.
68 See e.g. Sahin, “Rhetoric and Practice,” 468.
69 “Security Sector Reform,” 233.
70 Berling and Büger, International Practice Theory, 23; Adler-Nissen, Bourdieu in IR, 30.
71 Interview, Bishkek, 20 August 2015.
72 Conversation, Bishkek, 19 August 2015.
73 Politics of Police Reform, 105.
74 For the complete line-up and details of the meeting see: Премьер-министр Кыргызстана Джоомарт Оторбаев поддерживает сотрудничество Правительства с гражданским обществом для продвижения реформы милиции [PM of Kyrgyzstan Joomart Otorbaev supports cooperation of the government with civil society for the promotion of police reform], East-West Management Institute (EWMI), 2 October 2014, https://ewmi-cgp.org/ru/novosti/tekushchie-novosti/118-premer-ministr-kyrgyzstana-dzhoomart-otorbaev-podderzhivaet-sotrudnichestvo-pravitelstva-s-grazhdanskim-obshchestvom-dlya-prodvizheniya-reformy-militsii.html.
75 The Russian term is rebiata or molodye [young] rebiata; it was often used by interview partners when referring to activists from the CU central office in Bishkek.
76 Conversation with Territorial Council Head, Osh, 14 October 2015.
77 Quoted in Mangham, Bridging the Security Sector Gap, 33.
78 Conversation, Bishkek, 20 August 2015.
79 Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 238; Caparini, “Civil Society,” 253; Gordon, “Security Sector Reform,” 4.
80 Müller and Hochmüller, “Regime Protection” 391; Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 237; Caparini, “Civil Society,” 253.
81 Berling, “Science and Securitization,” 393.
82 Civic Union, “Security Together,” 8.
83 Lottholz, Post-Liberal Statebuilding, ch. 2; “Critiquing Anthropological Imagination,” 712–13.
84 Ibid.; Lottholz, Post-Liberal Statebuilding, ch. 7.
85 Агентство развития и инвестирования сообществ Кыргызской Республики [Community Development and Investment Agency], https://www.aris.kg/.
86 “Security Sector Reform,” 137–8.
87 Interview with Member of Civic Union, Bishkek, 09 December 2015.
88 “Science and Securitization,” 393.
89 “How your neighbour can ensure your safety,” 15 August 2017, Azattyk.
90 12 projects on security and crime reduction start in Kyrgyzstan, 14 July 2017, Azattyk.
91 Civic Union, “Public Security”.
92 “Science and Securitization,” 393.
93 “Regime Protection,” 391.
94 Berling, “Science and Securitization,” 388, original emphasis.
95 Gordon, “Security Sector Reform”.
96 Civic Union, “Role of local Self-Governance (LSG),” 3.
97 Ibid.
98 See for instance Crawford, “Community Safety”; Marat, Politics of Police Reform, 3–4.
99 As discussed by Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 233; Gordon “Security Sector Reform,” 137.
100 See https://reforma.kg/analytics/ for the list of publications in Russian.
101 See for instance, ‘Second independent report “On the state of affairs in the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Kyrgyz Republic [Vtoroi nezavisimii doklad ‘O polozhenii del v Ministerstve vnutrennikh del Kyrgyzskoi Respubliki’],” Civic Union ‘For reforms and result’, 11 June 2018, https://reforma.kg/media/post/postpdf/2018-06-12-1522267460.pdf.
102 “Five on Channel 5: What’s happening with Kyrgyzstan’s police?,” 06 February 2019, Channel Five Hereafter, research and commentary, other press coverage publications are cited with their English titles, dates and source hyperlinks for sake of brevity; see appendix 2 for full list of sources.
103 “More than 60% of the crime victims do not report to the police,” 24 February 2016, Azattyk.
104 For instance: “In Kyrgyzstan, the problem with violence in schools remains extremely worrying,” 20 July 2016, 24.kg; “Crime, racketeering, drug addiction. What’s surrounding Bishkek youth?,” 25 May 2018, reforma.kg.
105 “Activists in Jogorku Kenesh handed over petition with appeal for a police reform,” 29 January 2016, Azattyk.
106 “Society could be deprived of the right to take part in the police reform,” 5 April 2016, reforma.kg.
107 “Civic Union presented a report on the progress of the police reform in the parliament,” 12 April 2016, Azattyk.
108 “Civic activists handed over dozens of proposals for police reform in Kyrgyzstan,” 24 June 2016, Knews.
109 “Law enforcement agencies in Kyrgyzstan will be cardinally reformed,” 4 June 2016, 24.kg.
110 “Djanybek Bakchiev MP: Security should be a key element of modern society,” 11 June 2016, Knews.
111 “The reform of the militsiia into a politsiia is a tedious process, but a necessary one,” 03 March 2018, Kabar.
112 “Six new services have been created in the MIA,” 04 August 2017, Azattyk.
113 “Renaming does not mean reform,” 10 August 2017, reforma.kg.
114 Sapar Isakov taken under arrest until end of investigation [Сапар Исаков взят под стражу до конца следствия], Kaktus, 05 June 2018, https://kaktus.media/doc/375394_sapar_isakov_vziat_pod_strajy_do_konca_sledstviia.html.
115 “Joint plans made possible the mobilisation of societal and authorities’ efforts for crime prevention (final report),” 24 August 2016, reforma.kg
116 Societal monitoring of the patrol police’s work is starting in Bishkek, 05 November 2019, Knews.kg.
117 See: Police reform will be successful under parliamentary control, 28 August 2018, reforma.kg.
118 In Kyrgyzstan, perpetrators of crimes will be called to prophylactic consultations, 02 December 2019, vesti.kg.
119 Sahin, “Rhetoric and Practice,” 468; Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 233.
120 “Uneasy Marriage,” 401.
121 Gordon, “Security Sector Reform,” 138; see also Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform,” 235; Caparini, “Civil Society”.
122 Berling, “Science and Securitization”; Müller and Hochmüller, “Regime Protection”.
123 Müller and Hochmüller, “Regime Protection”; Berling, “Science and Securitization”.
124 Büger and Gadinger, International Practice Theory.
125 Bliesemann de Guevara and Kostić, “Knowledge Production”.
126 Berling, “Science and Securitization”; Sahin, “Rhetoric and Practice”; Gordon, “Security Sector Reform”; Mobekk, “Security Sector Reform”; Caparini, “Civil Society”.
127 See Stone and Ward, “Democratic Policing”; Schroeder and Chappuis, “New Perspectives,” 134.