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Notes
Thanks to Megumi Aoi, Espen Aarseth, Mike Ambinder, Diane Carr, Gerald Farca, Philip Farnham, Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, Ian Hamilton, Aimi Hamraie, Henriette Louwerse, Robert McKay, Matthias Revers, Feng Zhu and Michelle Westerlaken.
1 Valve, Half-Life 2: Raising the Bar, 145.
2 Valve, 142.
3 Slater, “The Top 10 Most Unlikely Videogame Heroes”; Bradford, “Gaming’s Greatest Everyman Heroes”; Stuart, “Half-Life at 20”.
4 “Everyman, n.”
5 Haglund, “Tom Hanks Is Not an “Everyman””; Lang, “Tom Hanks Isn”t “Everyman””.
6 Keighley, “The Final Hours of Half-Life”; Stuart, “Half-Life at 20”; O”Dwyer, Unforseen Consequences.
7 Laidlaw, “Mathoms from the Lambda Files (c. 1998)”.
8 Dulin, “Half-Life Review”; IGN, “Half-Life Review”; Green, “Half-Life”; Reed, “Half-Life 2”; Cifaldi, “The Gamasutra Quantum Leap Awards”; Sivak, “Half-Life 2: Being Gordon Freeman”; Stuart, “Half-Life at 20”; Farca, Playing Dystopia, 95–96; Cory Barlog in O”Dwyer, Unforseen Consequences, 11:17-11:40.
9 Laidlaw, “Writing For Half-Life”.
10 Hodgson, Half-Life 2: Prima Official Game Guide, 3.
11 Paul, The Toxic Meritocracy of Video Games.
12 Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 5.
13 Garland Thomson, 6.
14 Garland Thomson, 6.
15 Garland Thomson, 6.
16 Garland Thomson, 7.
17 Garland Thomson, 8.
18 Garland-Thomson, “Integrating Disability, Transforming Feminist Theory”, 10.
19 Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 8.
20 Hamraie, Building Access, 19–39.
21 Goffman, Stigma, 128; quoted in Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 8.
22 Goffman, Stigma, 128.
23 Haglund, “Tom Hanks Is Not an “Everyman””; Lang, “Tom Hanks Isn”t “Everyman””.
24 As Garland Thomson notes, it is significant that “Goffman takes for granted that femaleness has no part in his sketch of a normative human being” (8). On “the default male,” see Criado Perez, Invisible Women.
25 Dolmage, Disability Rhetoric, 19–30.
26 Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 8.
27 Hacking, The Taming of Chance, 160–69; Davis, “Constructing Normalcy”.
28 Hunicke, “The Case for Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment in Games”; Salen and Zimmerman, Rules of Play, 222–23.
29 Caldwell-Gervais, A Thorough Look at Homeworld, 32:04-33:44.
30 Crawford, “Design Techniques and Ideals for Computer Games”, 106; Braithwaite and Schreiber, Challenges for Game Designers, 99–100; Schell, The Art of Game Design, 207–9; Fullerton, Game Design Workshop, 331–33.
31 Salen and Zimmerman, Rules of Play, 351.
32 King, “Morality Plays”, 240–43.
33 Cawley, “The Moral Play of Everyman”, l. 912.
34 Reichmann, Emsbach, and Worschech, Curd Jürgens; Grunwald, “The Sounds of Salzburg”; Billington, “Everyman Review”.
35 Davidson, Walsh, and Broos, Everyman and Its Dutch Original, Elckerlijc; Speaight, William Poel and the Elizabethan Revival, 163; Miles, Everyman; Maude, Everyman.
36 Aarseth, “I Fought the Law”, 181.
37 Aarseth, 181.
38 Iser, The Act of Reading, 34.
39 Iser, 34.
40 Iser, 34–35.
41 Aarseth, “I Fought the Law”, 184.
42 Aarseth, 185.
43 Aarseth, 184.
44 Aarseth, 185–87.
45 Aarseth, 188, 185.
46 Aarseth, 188.
47 Aarseth, 188.
48 Farca, Playing Dystopia, 207–9; Tanenbaum, “How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Gamer”.
49 Iser, The Implied Reader, xii.
50 Iser, The Act of Reading, 35–36.
51 Iser, 35.
52 Aarseth, “I Fought the Law”, 181.
53 Yuan, Folmer, and Harris Jr., “Game Accessibility: A Survey”; Barlet and Spohn, Includification; Powers, Nguyen, and Frieden, “Video Game Accessibility”; Heron, “Special Issue on Game Accessibility”; Gandolfi, Calabria, and Ferdig, “Digital Games for Special Needs”; Ellis, Kent, and Leaver, Gaming Disability.
54 Heron, “Inaccessible through Oversight”, 32–33.
55 Aarseth has since questioned the utility of the notion of the implied player on the grounds that it is a pleonasm: there is nothing implied about a game’s player, he argues, explicitly defined as it is by the game’s mechanics and user interface. It is perhaps better, he suggests, to consider diegetic games (those with a world and characters) as having not an implied player, but rather an explicit player function; Aarseth, “Panel @ PCG2018”.
56 Crawford, “Design Techniques and Ideals for Computer Games”, 106.
57 “Half-Life 2: Survivor”.
58 Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §66-71.
59 Dalgleish, “There Are No Universal Interfaces”.
60 Plothe, “The Whose View of Hue?”.
61 Hepler, “Killer Women”; Paul, The Toxic Meritocracy of Video Games, 131–33.
62 Walker, “Assassin’s Creed Origins”.
63 “Game Accessibility Guidelines”; AbleGamers Charity, “Accessible Player Experiences (APX)”.
64 Iser, The Act of Reading, 34–35.
65 Aarseth, “I Fought the Law”, 184.
66 Aarseth, 188, 181.
67 Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 8.
68 Moses, “Aussie Lizard Has Smartphone Game Licked”.
69 Westerlaken, “The Rise of the Cat-Games”; “Apps for Cats”; “Friskies Cat’s Play”.
70 An, Cat Cat Revolution; Noz and An, “Cat Cat Revolution”.
71 Westerlaken and Gualeni, “Grounded Zoomorphism”; Westerlaken and Gualeni, “Felino”.
72 Wingrave et al., “Early Explorations of CAT”.
73 Baskin and Zamansky, “The Player Is Chewing the Tablet!”.
74 Tan et al., “Metazoa Ludens”.
75 Yanofsky and Markowitz, “Changes in General Behavior of Two Mandrills (Papio Sphinx)”; Markowitz, “Engineering Environments for Behavioral Opportunities in the Zoo”, 40–41.
76 Perdue et al., “Technology at the Zoo”.
77 Martin and Shumaker, “Great Ape Touch-Panel Tasks”.
78 “Apps for Apes”; Crecente, “These Orangutans Play with IPads”; Boostrom, “Problem-Solving with Orangutans (Pongo Pygmaeus and Pongo Abelii) and Chimpanzees (Pan Traoglodytes)”.
79 Wirman, “Games for/with Strangers”; Wirman and Jørgensen, “Designing for Intuitive Use for Non-Human Users”; Jørgensen and Wirman, “Multispecies Methods, Technologies for Play”.
80 Stefano, Cool Hunting Video; Westerlaken, “The Playful Penguins of Long Beach, CA”.
81 Driessen et al., “What Could Playing with Pigs Do to Us?”
82 Rumbaugh et al., “Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta)”.
83 Martz, “In a Pig’s Eye”; Helft, “Pig Video Arcades Critique Life in the Pen”; Dyson, “Move Over “Babe”!”; Forest, “Talking to Our Ancestors”; “Pigs Use Computers To Share Feelings”.
84 Washburn and Astur, “Exploration of Virtual Mazes by Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta)”.
85 Harvey et al., “Intracellular Dynamics of Hippocampal Place Cells during Virtual Navigation”; Mouse in VR Maze.
86 Sofroniew et al., “Natural Whisker-Guided Behavior by Head-Fixed Mice in Tactile Virtual Reality”; Flam, “Virtual Reality for Mice Reveals the Workings of the Brain”.
87 O”Neill and Savage-Rumbaugh, “Words from the Wise”.
88 Pons Tomás, Jaén Martínez, and Catalá Bolós, “Envisioning Future Playful Interactive Environments for Animals”; Hirskyj-Douglas et al., “Seven Years after the Manifesto”; Wirman, “Ludus Animalis”; Baskina et al., “Playful Animal Computer Interaction”; Westerlaken, “Playful Encounters with Animals”.
89 Mancini, “Animal-Computer Interaction: A Manifesto”; Westerlaken and Gualeni, “Digitally Complemented Zoomorphism”; Jørgensen and Wirman, “Multispecies Methods, Technologies for Play”.
90 Tyler, “The Exception and the Norm: Dimensions of Anthropocentrism”.
91 Matsuzawa, “The Ai Project”; Matsuzawa, “Symbolic Representation of Number in Chimpanzees”.
92 Iversen and Matsuzawa, “Acquisition of Navigation by Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes)”.
93 Matsuzawa, “Colour Naming and Classification in a Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes)”; Matsuno, Kawai, and Matsuzawa, “Color Classification by Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes)”.
94 Fujita and Matsuzawa, “Delayed Figure Reconstruction by a Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes) and Humans (Homo Sapiens)”; Tomonaga and Matsuzawa, “Perception of Complex Geometric Figures in Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) and Humans (Homo Sapiens)”.
95 Iversen and Matsuzawa, “Development of Interception of Moving Targets by Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes)”.
96 Biro and Matsuzawa, “Numerical Ordering in a Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes)”; Tomonaga and Matsuzawa, “Sequential Responding to Arabic Numerals”; Biro and Matsuzawa, “Use of Numerical Symbols by the Chimpanzee ( Pan Troglodytes )”; Tomonaga and Matsuzawa, “Enumeration of Briefly Presented Items by the Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes) and Humans (Homo Sapiens)”.
97 Kawai and Matsuzawa, “Numerical Memory Span in a Chimpanzee”.
98 Inoue and Matsuzawa, “Working Memory of Numerals in Chimpanzees”; Matsuzawa, “Symbolic Representation of Number in Chimpanzees”, 94–96.
99 Matsuzawa, “Symbolic Representation of Number in Chimpanzees”, 97.
100 Inoue and Matsuzawa, “Working Memory of Numerals in Chimpanzees”, R1004.
101 Tyler, “A Singular of Boars”.
102 On “animal crips,” see Taylor, Beasts of Burden, chapter 3.
103 Langlitz, “Synthetic Primatology”.
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Notes on contributors
Tom Tyler
Tom Tyler is a lecturer in Digital Culture in the School of Media and Communication at the University of Leeds, UK. His research addresses the use of animals and the expression of anthropocentric assumptions within the history of ideas and popular culture. He is the editor of Animal Beings (Parallax, 2006), the co-editor of Animal Encounters (Brill, 2009) and the author of CIFERAE: A Bestiary in Five Fingers (University of Minnesota Press, 2012). Further details of his research can be found at http://www.cyberchimp.co.uk/research/. Email: [email protected].