Israel's policy towards its Arab minority, 1947–1950

Abstract

In the absence of preconceived strategies – despite several pre-state attempts to prepare blueprints for tackling the Arab problem – Israel's early Arab policy was shaped in a process of trial and error, fluctuating between ideological aspirations and good intentions (or wishful thinking) and the needs on the ground: the 1948 war and its consequences, the wide-open borders and regular infiltration, and the fear of a second comprehensive war with the Arab states.

Keywords:

• Israel
• Israeli Arabs
• David Ben-Gurion
• military government
• political parties

Notes

  1. Yaacov M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); Ori Stendel, The Arabs in Israel (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 1996). Another scholarly endeavour to study the evolution of Israel's attitude to its Arabs between 1948 and 1967 has been Nachman Tal's unpublished doctoral dissertation ‘Security Considerations in Israel's Policy toward its Arab Minority’, submitted to the University of Haifa, 2001.

  2. See, for example, Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Austin: Texas University Press, 1980); Sara Osetzky-Lazar, “Hitgabshut Yahasei ha-Gomlin Ben Yehudim le-Arvim be-Medinat Israel: ha-Asor ha-Rishon, 1948–1958” (PhD diss., University of Haifa, 1996); Uzi Benziman and Atalla Mansur, Dayarei Mishne: Arviyei Israel, Ma'amadam veha-Mediniut Klapeihem (Jerusalem: Keter, 1992); Yair Boimel, Tzel Cahol Lavan: Mediniyut ha-Mimsad aa-Israeli u-Peulotav Bekerev ha-Ezrachim ha-Arvim be-Israel, 1958–1968 (Haifa: Pardes, 2007).

  3. For example: Sabri Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1976); Ahmad H. Sa'di and Lila Abu Lughod, eds., Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).

  4. Protocol of a meeting on Arab affairs, October 10–11, 1929, Central Zionist Archive (CZA), S25/2961.

  5. Landauer's memorandum on the problems of handling the minorities issue, December 6, 1937, CZA, S7/507.

  6. Ben-Gurion's memoranda: Outlines of Zionist Policy, March 7, 1941, Ben-Gurion Archive (BGA) and October 15, 1941, CZA, Z4/14632, and a Hebrew memorandum of the same date and title, BGA. The English and Hebrew versions are almost identical except for the chapter on the Arabs. On Ben-Gurion's attitude to the Arab Question see also Benziman and Mansur, Dayarei Mishne, 13–14.

  7. Yoav Gelber, Shorshei ha-Havatzelet (Tel Aviv: MoD Publishing House, 1992), I: 329; idem, Moledet Chadasha (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1990), 534–45.

  8. Unsigned memorandum titled “Outlines of the Structure of the Jewish State's Foreign Service,” December 1947, CZA, S25/9388.

  9. Shimoni's memorandum to Zeev Sharef and Walter Eitan, December 26, 1947, CZA, S25/3027.

 10. On the Arabs' exodus from Haifa see Tamir Goren, Haifa ha-Arvit be-Tashach (Sde Boker: Institute of Ben-Gurion's Legacy, 2006), 189–235.

 11. The Arab Emergency Committee to Shabtai Levy, April 23, 1948, ISA, P/940/437.

 12. Protocol of the governor's meeting with Arab representatives, in Tom Segev, 1949 – ha-Israelim ha-Rishonim (Jerusalem: Keter, 1984), 69–71. See Tamir Goren, mi-Tlut le-Hishtalvut (Haifa: University of Haifa Press, 1996), 38.

 13. Ben-Gurion's War Diary, Vol. I, entry for May 1, 1948, 378–82.

 14. Summary of Meyerson and Danin's meeting with Haifa representatives, May 2, 1948, CZA, S25/9193, and protocol of the first meeting of the Haifa committee for Arab affairs, Ben-Gurion's War Diary, Vol. I, entry for May 1, 1948, 378–82

 15. Zabludowski's letter of appointment, May 16, 1948, Israel Defence Forces Archive (IDFA), 7249/49/169.

 16. Moshe Itah's (Director of the Haifa office of the Ministry of Minority Affairs) letter to Bender (Haifa town HQ), July 28, 1948, Israel State Archives (ISA), C1318/24.

 17. Shitrit's report on his visit to Haifa in the protocol of the People's Executive meeting, 3 May 1948, in: ISA, The Protocols of the People's Executive, 18 April to 13 May 1948 (Jerusalem: ISA, 1978), 32–3.

 18. Summary of a meeting between ‘Amitai’ (Ben-Gurion), ‘Ikar’ (Machnes) and ‘Goy’ (Gwirtz), May 6, 1948, BGA.

 19. Shitrit's memorandum of May 10, 1948, attached to Sharef (secretary of the provisory government) to the ministers, June 7, 1948, ISA FO/2541/12.

 20. Undated memorandum, probably from early May 1948, titled “definition of the praxis in managing Arab towns and villages that will be occupied by the army,” ISA, C/307/35; Hana Prager's memorandum on the structure of the Arab department in the ministry of police and Arab affairs, June 7, 1948, ISA, C/303/16.

 21. Undated memorandum, probably from July 1948, on the Ministry of Minorities Affairs, Undated memorandum, probably from early May 1948, titled “definition of the praxis in managing Arab towns and villages that will be occupied by the army,” ISA, C/307/35; Hana Prager's memorandum on the structure of the Arab department in the ministry of police and Arab affairs, June 7, 1948, ISA, C/303/16

 22. Benziman and Mansur, Dayarei Mishne, 35–6.

 23. Entry for 21 May 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 445–6.

 24. The three doctors' report on the examination of the bodies, May 27, 1948, attached to the Arab Emergency Committee's memorandum, May 28, 1948, ISA, FO/2406/2; Robert Gouy (IRC) to Shertok, June 1, 1948, Entry for 21 May 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 445–6

 25. The IRC letters to Shertok, June 9 and 10, 1948, ISA FO/2406/2; Shertok to the General Staff, June 20, 1948, ibid; Helmer's reply to the MFA, beginning of July 1948, ibid.

 26. ‘Avner’ (Tel Aviv branch of the Shay) to Tene/A (the Shay's Arab section), June 2, 1948, HA, 105/154.

 27. Chizik's letter to Shitrit, June 1, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/9, and his report of June 22, 1948 on his meeting with the IRC delegates, ‘Avner’ (Tel Aviv branch of the Shay) to Tene/A (the Shay's Arab section), June 2, 1948, HA, 105/154

 28. Weekly report on the activities of the military governor of Jaffa, August 4, 1948, IDFA, 580/56/252.

 29. Jaffa's emergency committee's memorandum to the UN, July 19, 1948, IDFA, 1860/50/71.

 30. Entries for July 1 and 25, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 572, 622; Shitrit to Ben-Gurion, July 5, 1948, ISA, FO/2546/9. On the settlement of Jews in Jaffa see: Arnon Golan, Shinuy Merchavi (Beersheba: Ben-Gurion University Press, 2001), 89–100.

 31. Laniado's reports, July 28 and August 1, 1948, Entries for July 1 and 25, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 572, 622; Shitrit to Ben-Gurion, July 5, 1948, ISA, FO/2546/9. On the settlement of Jews in Jaffa see: Arnon Golan, Shinuy Merchavi (Beersheba: Ben-Gurion University Press, 2001), 89–100; summary of a debate on the detention of the Arab Emergency Committee, 3 Aug. 1948, ibid.; Shitrit's letter to Ben-Gurion and Shertok, August 6, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/9.

 32. Shitrit to Ben-Gurion, August 13, 1948, IDFA, 1860/50/38; A weekly report of Jaffa's governor, same date, IDFA, 580/56/252.

 33. A talk of the governor of Jaffa in Kol Israel (the voice of Israel), September 12, 1948, IDFA, 580/56/252.

 34. Weekly reports of Jaffa's governor, August 4 and 13, 1948, IDFA 580/56/252.

 35. Hiram's reports on the conquest of Acre and conditions in the town, 20 May and 9 June 1948, Ibid.

 36. Shimoni to Shertok, July 7, 1948, FO/2569/12, and to Shitrit, July 13, 1948, Weekly reports of Jaffa's governor, August 4 and 13, 1948, IDFA 580/56/252

 37. Protocol of the advisory committee to the military governor, September 14, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/11.

 38. Soltz's letter to Shitrit, August 13, 1948, ISA, FO/2426/6.

 39. Soltz's report of August 25, 1948 on the census, ISA, FO/2426/6; his quarterly report on the activities of the military administration in Nazareth for the period July 17 to October 1, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/11; Soltz's letter to the central military administration HQ, September 1, 1948, ISA, C/308/54.

 40. Protocol of the governor's meeting with the Mukhtars and dignitaries of the villages, August 26, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/10.

 41. Entry for October 9, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, III: 740.

 42. Entry for August 8, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 639; Minutes of Shitrit's meeting with Avner, August 4, 1948, ISA, C/308/9.

 43. Entry for August 26, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II, 662; Avner's circular letter to the military governors, September 16, 1948, IDFA 580/56/248.

 44. Shitrit to Avner, August 17, 1948, ISA C/308/9; Shertok to Dori, same date, Entry for August 26, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II, 662; Avner's circular letter to the military governors, September 16, 1948, IDFA 580/56/248, and Soltz to the Ministry of Minorities, September 30, 1948, ISA, C/304/17.

 45. Protocols of the first and second meetings of the advisory committee to the military governor, August 29 and September 2, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/11.

 46. Entry for September 15, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 692.

 47. Entry for September 15, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, II: 692, October 9, 1948, III: 740.

 48. Avner's memorandum to Ben-Gurion on the role and jurisdiction of the military administration in the occupied territories, October 17, 1948, ISA, FO/2564/11.

 49. Entry for December 20, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, III: 888–9.

 50. Michael Negbi's (liaison officer to the bedouins) review at the meeting of the Secondary Coordination Committee, January 25, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21.

 51. Summary of a discussion of the Bedouin problem in the Negev, August 11, 1950, PA.

 52. Air reconnaissance reports of the Negev District HQ, November–December 1950, IDFA 108/52/34, and Negbi's memorandum on hostile Bedouins in the Negev, December 16, 1950, Summary of a discussion of the Bedouin problem in the Negev, August 11, 1950, PA

 53. Musa Budeiri, The Palestine Communist Party, 1919–1948 (London: Ithaca 1979), 231–34.

 54. Shertok's letter to Shitrit, August 8, 1948, ISA C/307/56/.

 55. Unsigned memorandum, probably of the League, August 26, 1948, attached to Beeri's letter to Ben-Gurion, September 1, 1948; Protocol of the government's meeting on October 10, 1948, ISA, 12–13.

 56. Munir al-Fadil (Betlehem) to the Mufti, October 26, 1948, PA.

 57. Report of two Arab communists that infiltrated from Gaza, December 2, 1948, PA.

 58. Budeiri, The Palestine Communist Party, 238–42.

 59. A French version of the manifest is attached to ‘Yanai’ (Paris station) report to ‘Daat’ (the Israeli Foreign Ministry's political department, the predecessor of the Mossad), November 9, 1948, ISA, FO/2569/15.

 60. Moshe Yitakh's letter to the Ministry of Minority Affairs, August 25, 1948, ISA, C/1321/20, and Gad Machnes reply, August 30, 1948, A French version of the manifest is attached to ‘Yanai’ (Paris station) report to ‘Daat’ (the Israeli Foreign Ministry's political department, the predecessor of the Mossad), November 9, 1948, ISA, FO/2569/15

 61. Ben-Gurion's letter to Hushi, December 17, 1948, BGA, correspondence files.

 62. Entry for December 18, 1948 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, III: 882–4.

 63. Protocol of the government's meeting, December 20, 1948, ISA, 9–15.

 64. Protocol of the advisory committee to the military governor, December 29, 1948, ISA, C/308/9.

 65. Summary of the election results in the Arab sector according to places and parties/lists, ISA, C/1321/20.

 66. Avner's circular letter to the military governors, January 28, 1949, ISA, C/308/20; a list of 20 candidates for Mukhtars in western Galilee, March 1949, ISA, C/310/49.

 67. Kisilov (director general of the Ministry of the Interior) to Avner, March 24, 1949, IDFA, 580/56/250, and Avner to Eliezer Perry (director general of the Ministry of Defence), March 30, 1949, Avner's circular letter to the military governors, January 28, 1949, ISA, C/308/20; a list of 20 candidates for Mukhtars in western Galilee, March 1949, ISA, C/310/49

 68. Abraham Kidron (chief of security branch in the military intelligence) to Ben-Gurion, Shitrit, Dori and Yadin, January 31, 1949, ISA, C/307/56.

 69. Avner's circular letter to the cabinet ministers and general staff's relevant heads of wings and departments, March 7, 1949, ISA, C/308/20.

 70. The State Attorney to the minister of justice, June 19, 1949, IDFA 580/56/248.

 71. Entry for March 22, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's War Diary, III: 981, and entry for March 24 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

 72. Report of the committee on the problems of military government and its future, May 3, 1949, ISA, FO/2401/9.

 73. Dori to Zadok (adjutant general), May 20, 1949, IDFA 580/56/248.

 74. Summary of Ben-Gurion's meeting with Avner, May 20, 1949, Dori to Zadok (adjutant general), May 20, 1949, IDFA 580/56/248

 75. Entries for June 16 and July 19 and 9, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

 76. Shitrit's memorandum to the government on “The Minorities in Israel,” January 22, 1949, ISA, FO/2402/29.

 77. Protocol of the government meeting, March 26, 1949, ISA.

 78. Palmon's memorandum to Sharett, June 9, 1949, ISA, FO/2402/22.

 79. Entry for May 1, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA, and Avner to Yosef Yizraeli (director general of the Ministry of Defence), August 28, 1949, IDFA 580/56/248.

 80. Summaries of the committee's meetings in 1949 and 1950, PA.

 81. Moshe Sasson to Palmon, July 31, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21.

 82. Entry for December 20, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

 83. Summary of the Secondary Coordination Committee meeting, March 1, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21.

 84. Palmon's circular letter, January 31, 1951, Summary of the Secondary Coordination Committee meeting, March 1, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21

 85. Palmon's letter to the military administration's legal advisor, June 14, 1949, ISA, FO/2402/12.

 86. Amir's letters to Mor, June 12–13, 1949, IDFA 2289/50/94.

 87. Sharett to Ben-Gurion, June 21 and 29, 1949, ISA, FO/2402/12.

 88. Reports of the 7th brigade's intelligence officer and the governor Amir on the search of Majdalkrum by the 7th brigade, July 7 and 10, 1949, IDFA 2289/50/94.

 89. Amir to Maman, July 3, 1949, Reports of the 7th brigade's intelligence officer and the governor Amir on the search of Majdalkrum by the 7th brigade, July 7 and 10, 1949, IDFA 2289/50/94

 90. Summary of the meeting of the Secondary Coordination Committee, October 5, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21.

 91. The GSS survey of the Arabs in Israel, June 1951, ISA, FO/2402/23.

 92. GSS survey of Israel Arab population, June 1951, ISA, FO/2402/23.

 93. Statistical survey attached to Yekutieli to the Foreign Office, June 22, 1952, ISA, FO/2474/4.

 94. Protocols of the cabinet meetings, December 9, 1951, 12–13 and August 31, 1952, 4, ISA. A review of the Arab refugees' conditions in Israel by Asher Dotan, November 9, 1952, ISA, FO/2406/17, and his memorandum of November 12, 1952, Statistical survey attached to Yekutieli to the Foreign Office, June 22, 1952, ISA, FO/2474/4

 95. Entry for December 20, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA; the abovementioned survey of the GSS (note 85), 19–21.

 96. Entry for January 20, 1950 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

 97. Protocol of the Foreign Affairs and Security committee, November 19, 1951, ISA, A/7562/11.

 98. Entry for June 19, 1949 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA, and the State Attorney's letter to the minister of justice, same date, IDFA 580/56/248.

 99. Summary of a meeting at the office of the general military governor, September 27, 1951, IDFA 834/53/133.

100. Hillel Cohen, Nifkadim Nochechim: ha-Plitim ha-Falastinim be-Israel Meaz 1948 (Jerusalem: Van Leer Institute, 2000), 56–8, 62–5, 86–9.

101. Entry for November 15, 1953 in Moshe Sharett, Yoman Ishi (Tel Aviv: Maariv, 1978), I: 150–51.

102. Protocol of government meeting, November 8, 1949, ISA, 2.

103. Draft of the committee's report attached to Palmon's circular letter to the committee's members, April 25, 1950, ISA, FO/2564/21; Landman's letter to Palmon, May 11, 1950, Protocol of government meeting, November 8, 1949, ISA, 2; and the committee's final report attached to its letter to the cabinet's secretary, June 2, 1950, ISA, FO/2402/20.

104. Palmon to the Cabinet's secretary, July 3, 1950, ISA, FO/2402/29.

105. Avigur's memorandum to Ben-Gurion, Yadin and Maklef, April 26, 1950, ISA, FO/2401/19.

106. Entry for May 11, 1950 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

107. Protocol of the government meeting, July 12, 1950, ISA.

108. Protocol of the deliberations of the conference of Israel's representatives abroad, July 17–23, 1950, ISA, FO/2408/9, 39.

109. Palmon's memorandum to Ben-Gurion and Sharett, October 24, 1951, ISA, FO/2402/23, and entry for October 31, 1951 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA.

110. Entry for November 23, 1951 in Ben-Gurion's diary, BGA, and the Ministry of Defence's circular letter to the government's ministries, November 27, 1951, ISA, FO/2401/19.

111. Protocol of the foreign affairs and security committee, June 29, 1949, ISA, A/7561/4.

112. Protocols of the foreign affairs and security committee, January 16 and 30, 1951, ISA, A/7562/7, and March 6, 1951, ISA, A/7562/8.

113. Protocol of the foreign affairs and security committee, December 3, 1951, ISA, A/7562/12.

114. Eitan to Ben-Gurion, December 16, 1949, ISA, FO/53/2.

115. Palmon to Eitan, December 19, 1949, ISA, FO/2402/20.

116. See, for example, Times, August 8, 1953, on the search in Tira and the explanation of Pinhas Lavon in the Knesset. See also New York Times, August 17, 1953, on the Arabs' protests against the law of absentees' property and other discrimination in matters of lands.

117. Palmon to Eitan, August 1, 1952, ISA, FO/2408/14.