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ABSTRACT
Christian debates about human sexuality are often presented as being concerned primarily with differences regarding authority of scripture. It is proposed here that they might more constructively be understood as debates about science and theology. Just as cosmology, evolution and demonology have variously been perceived as presenting conflict between scientific theories and biblical texts, so human sexuality presents similar points of tension. The issue at stake is not really about biblical authority, but rather about how the “book of nature” and the book of scripture are understood to mutually interpret each other. Lessons learned from debates between science and theology in other domains, may usefully facilitate a more constructive debate on sexuality.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Professor Christopher C. H. Cook is a member of the Social and Biological Sciences Thematic Working Group, which is one of a number of thematic groups working under the aegis of a Coordinating Group to formulate the proposed Episcopal Teaching Document on Human Sexuality for the Church of England. The views expressed in this paper are entirely his own and are offered only as a basis for discussion. They do not reflect the views of the Working Group, or of other members of the Group. However, grateful thanks are offered to other members of the group for critical and constructive conversations which have played a formative part in the writing of this paper.
Notes
1 There are some notable exceptions. See, for example, Jones and Yarhouse, Homosexuality, 127–39; Rogers, Sexuality and the Christian Body.
2 House of Bishops of the General Synod of the Church of England, Issues in Human Sexuality, 40.
3 Resolution I.10.d.
4 House of Bishops Working Group, Report of the House of Bishops Working Group on Human Sexuality. Referred to from hereon as the Pilling Report.
5 Ibid., 97.
6 World Medical Association, WMA Statement on Natural Variations; World Psychiatric Association, WPA Position Statement on Gender Identity.
7 Drescher, “Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality.”
8 American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
9 World Health Organization, The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders.
10 See discussion by Drescher, “Out of DSM.”
11 The Memorandum is available on the websites of most of the organizations concerned. See, for example, https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Memorandum-of-understanding-on-conversion-therapy.pdf. A revised version was agreed in 2017 by 13 organizations: https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/UKCP-Memorandum-of-Understanding-on-Conversion-Therapy-in-the-UK.pdf
12 O’Callaghan and May, Beyond Critique.
13 Ibid., 37.
14 Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science,” 45–101.
15 Mayer and McHugh, “Sexuality and Gender,” 7–143.
16 p7
17 p7
18 It was arguably more concerned with a clash between science and philosophy. Drake, Galileo, provides a very helpful short introduction. See also McMullin, The Galileo Affair.
19 See, for example, 1 Chronicles 16:30, Psalm 93:1.
20 The literature on this is vast, but I am grateful especially for insights gained from Peacocke, God and the New Biology, 87–102; Berry, Creation and Evolution Not Creation or Evolution. I am aware that Darwin's theories have been considerably debated, modified and updated, even if generally accepted. I simply do not have space here to explore this literature in detail. An interesting account of evolution from a Christian perspective, including its implications for human sexuality, is provided by Joan Roughgarden. See, for example, Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow.
21 See, for example, Pannenberg, The Historicity of Nature, 45–8.
22 Genesis 2:7.
23 See, for example, the interesting discussion by Edwards, The God of Evolution.
24 Mark 1:21–28 (cf Luke 4:33–35), Mark 5:1–20 (cf Matthew 8:28–34 & Luke 8:27–39), Mark 7:24–30 (cf Matthew 15:22–28), Mark 9:14–29 (cf Mathew 17:14–18, Luke 9:38–43), Matthew 9:32 (cf Luke 11:14), Matthew 12:22f. For helpful discussions see Dunn and Twelftree, “Demon-Possession and Exorcism in the New Testament”; Stuckenbruck, “The Human Being and Demonic Invasion.”
25 See, for example Capps, Jesus the Village Psychiatrist.
26 Mark 5:15, cf Luke 8:26.
27 See Montgomery, Demon Possession; Bourguignon, Possession; Enoch and Trethowan, Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes, 160–90.
28 An understanding of demon possession as a modern explanation for human affliction has also been applied by some Christians to issues of homosexuality (Ross and Stålström, “Exorcism as Psychiatric Treatment”) and gender identity (Barlow et al., “Gender Identity Change in a Transsexual,” 6).
29 World Health Organization, Defining Sexual Health.
30 For a helpful discussion of biological and cultural drives in the context of evolutionary theory, see Edwards, The God of Evolution, 60–70. Even where such drives are “disordered”, Edwards (drawing on Rahner and others) argues that they are not sin.
31 Dunn, Romans 1–8, 64; Cranfield, Romans, 35.
32 Davies, “New Testament Ethics and Ours”; Martin, “Heterosexism and the Interpretation of Romans 1:18–32.”
33 Martin, “Heterosexism and the Interpretation of Romans 1:18–32.”
34 See McGrath, The Science of God, 35–44, for a helpful discussion.
35 Romans 1:27.
36 This is thus a part of a wider question as to how revealed truth is properly both conserved by tradition and reinterpreted in the light of changing world views (Wynn, “Tradition”).
37 World Health Organization, Defining Sexual Health.
38 Hughes et al., “Consensus Statement on Management of Intersex Disorders.”
39 See, for example, Loughlin, “Pauline Conversations.”
40 Murray, Homosexualities; Loughlin, “Gay Affections.”
41 Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science,” 64.
42 Vasey and VanderLaan, “Evolving Research on the Evolution of Male Androphilia.” See also Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science,” 64–7.
43 World Medical Association, “WMA Statement on Transgender People.”
44 World Professional Association for Transgender Health, Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People.
45 American Psychological Association, “Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People.”
46 American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
47 Carrigan, “Asexuality.”
48 Wilson and Rahman, Born Gay, 10.
49 See also the more recent review by Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science”, which concludes that there is “good evidence for genetic and nonsocial environmental influences on sexual orientation” (87). However, they also note that the evidence that causal environmental influences are non-social rather than social is stronger for male than for female sexual orientation. In a recent British study of female twin pairs, evidence for the influence of a non-shared environmental effect (possibly including peer socialization) was identified, leaving open the possibility of at least some social environmental influence in women (Burri et al., “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female Sexual Orientation”).
50 There may be rare exceptions, as noted by Alexander, Genes, Determinism and God, 216–17.
51 Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science,” 62.
52 Sheldon et al., “Beliefs about the Etiology of Homosexuality.”
53 Ross and Stålström, “Exorcism as Psychiatric Treatment”; Bates, A Church at War, 137.
54 Herrell et al., “Sexual Orientation and Suicidality”; Gilman et al., “Risk of Psychiatric Disorders among Individuals”; King et al., “Mental Health and Quality of Life of Gay Men and Lesbians”; King et al., “A Systematic Review of Mental Disorder”; Hagger-Johnson et al., “Sexual Orientation Identity in Relation to Smoking History”; Semlyen et al., “Sexual Orientation and Symptoms of Common Mental Disorder or Low Wellbeing”; Miranda-Mendizábal et al., “Sexual Orientation and Suicidal Behaviour in Adolescents and Young Adults.” Similar findings have been reported for transgender people: Bockting et al., “Stigma, Mental Health, and Resilience in an Online Sample”; Nuttbrock et al., “Gender Abuse and Major Depression among Transgender Women.”
55 See, for example, the discussions by Semlyen et al., “Sexual Orientation and Symptoms of Common Mental Disorder or Low Wellbeing”; Meyer, “Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations.”
56 Sowe et al., “Religious Anti-gay Prejudice as a Predictor.”
57 Gonzales, “Same-sex Marriage – a Prescription for Better Health.”
58 Hatzenbuehler et al., “State-level Policies and Psychiatric Morbidity.”
59 See, for example, the discussion by Bailey, “Homosexuality and Mental Illness” and a twin study by Zietsch et al., “Sexual Orientation and Psychiatric Vulnerability” which concludes that common genetic factors may be implicated.
60 See, for example, Chalke et al., In the Name of Love.
61 This quote, taken from a book to which Jones contributed, was reproduced in the Pilling Report (63).
62 Bailey et al., “Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science,” 86; Cramer et al., “Weighing the Evidence”; Shidlo and Schroeder, “Changing Sexual Orientation”; Drescher, “Can Sexual Orientation Be Changed?”; American Psychological Association, Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force; Serovich et al., “A Systematic Review of the Research Base.”
63 American Psychological Association, “Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients”; British Psychological Society, Guidelines and Literature Review for Psychologists; Scasta and Bialer, Position Statement on Homosexuality; British Psychological Society, Guidelines and Literature Review for Psychologists; Royal College of Psychiatrists.
64 The literature providing evidence of such change has been reviewed by Phelan, Successful Outcomes of Sexual Orientation Change Efforts (SOCE). Whilst this is not a peer-reviewed publication, and is somewhat uncritical of the literature, it does provide a helpful bibliographic resource.
65 Spitzer, “Can Some Gay Men and Lesbians Change Their Sexual Orientation?”
66 Spitzer, “Spitzer Reassesses His 2003 Study of Reparative Therapy of Homosexuality.”
67 One of the best and largest studies to date was undertaken by John Dehlin amongst Mormons who had undergone SOCEs: Bradshaw et al., “Sexual Orientation Change Efforts through Psychotherapy”; Dehlin et al., “Sexual Orientation Change Efforts among Current or Former LDS Church Members.” Out of 1612 participants, less than 4% reported any change of core same-sex erotic attraction. More than a third reported moderate to severe harm.