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ABSTRACT
In the twenty-first century, developing country policymakers are offered different market-led role models and varied interpretations of ‘developmental state role models’. Despite this confusion, African countries pursue emulative strategies for different purposes – whether they may be for economic transformation (in line with developmental state strategies), market-led reforms or simply to signal the implementation of ‘best practices’ to please donors. Rwanda has been lauded for the country’s economic recovery since the 1994 genocide, with international financial institutions and heterodox scholars both praising different facets of its development strategy. This paper argues that Rwanda is an example of a country that has simultaneously pursued emulative strategies for different purposes – often even within the same sector. Two studies of emulation are explored: the emulation of Singapore’s Economic Development Board through the establishment of Rwanda’s own Rwanda Development Board (RDB) and the evolution of Rwanda’s financial sector with reference to the use of contending market-led and developmental state models. The paper argues that in Rwanda, incoherent emulation for different purposes has resulted in contradictory tensions within its development strategy and the construction of a neoliberal developmental state.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the editors and anonymous reviewers of the journal for their helpful comments and feedback, which have improved this paper. Special thanks also to Alexandra Zeitz for her helpful comments. Previous versions of this article have been presented at The International Initiative for the Promotion of Political Economy Conference in Lisbon in 2013 and the International Studies Association Conference in New Orleans in 2015. Thank you to everyone who attended the panels and particularly to those who shared thoughtful comments and constructive feedback. All errors and omissions are my responsibility.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Pritish Behuria LSE Fellow, Department of International Development, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK.
Notes
1 The concept – developmental state – was originally applied to characterise the successful latecomer development experiences of Northeast Asian countries. Beginning with Johnson’s (Citation1982) study of Japan and later followed by seminal studies of South Korea and Taiwan (Amsden Citation1989, Wade Citation1990).
2 The term – neoliberal developmental state – was previously used by Liow (Citation2012) to characterise the experience of Singapore. He argued that neoliberal policies were proposed after the developmental state had emerged in Singapore. In contrast, this paper argues that Rwanda's neoliberal developmental state has emerged through the Rwandan government's learning-orientation during the process of economic recovery.
3 Interview, National Bank of Rwanda, August 2016.
4 Increased financial inclusion has been achieved through the use of microfinance institutions and Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs). Despite these increases, only 26 per cent of Rwandans use formal commercial banks.
5 Interview, Senior RPF ideologue, May 2013.
6 See Routley (Citation2014) for a recent review of the literature on developmental states.
7 Interviews, senior RPF cadres, May 2012 and May 2013.
8 Interview, Tito Rutaremara, January 2015.
9 Interview, Tito Rutaremara, January 2015.
10 See Booth and Golooba-Mutebi (Citation2014) for a discussion of the RPF's learning orientation in the agriculture sector.
11 See Crisafulli and Redmond (Citation2012), Chu (Citation2009), Thomas (Citation2016).
12 Interview, RWASHOSCCO representative, March 2012.
13 Interview, Special Policy Unit in the Office of the President, January 2015.
14 Though Booth and Golooba-Mutebi (Citation2012) acknowledge that there are some differences with East Asian countries, these differences are never mentioned or become the subject of analysis in their study.
15 REMA was re-established as the national authority for environmental protection and conservation in 2013.
16 Interview, American investor, April 2012.
17 Interview, Clare Akamanzi, January 2015.
18 Interview, RDB Official, November 2012; Interview, MINECOFIN Official, December 2012.
19 Interviews, RDB representatives and consultants, March and May 2012.
20 Interviews, foreign investors and foreign consultants, March–May 2013.
21 Interview, foreign consultant in RDB, April 2012.
22 Interview, foreign consultant in RDB, May 2013.
23 Interview, Doing Business Unit, April 2012.
24 Interviews, local and foreign investors, October 2011–May 2012.
25 Interview, Ministry of Commerce and Industry official, March 2012.
26 Interview, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning official, November 2011.
27 Interviews, RDB's younger employees, January–May 2012.
28 Interview, RDB employees, January–May 2012.
29 Interviews, RDB officials and MINICOM officials, January 2015.
30 Interview, MINICOM official, August 2016.
31 One newspaper article charged that Kalisa, who owned 31 per cent of shares in BCDI, illegally authorised loans to himself, his wife, sister and brother worth 800 million RwF (Mutara Citation2008). After being imprisoned for several years, he was pardoned in 2010. Kajeguhakwa was charged in 2001 and escaped to the United States. He became a vocal opponent of the RPF.
32 BRD retained 25 per cent of shares.
33 Interview, Sanjeev Anand, June 2017.
34 See note 33.
35 Interview, BK representative, August 2016.
36 Interview, BK representative, May 2012.
37 Interview, BK representative, August 2016.
38 Interview, BRD representative, January 2015.
39 Interview, BRD representative, January 2015.
40 Interviews, CSS Zigama and senior military official, January 2015.
41 Interview, CSS Zigama, January 2015.
42 Interview, CSS Zigama, January 2015.
43 Interview, Consultant, May 2013.