Beyond bi-nationalism? The Young Hebrews versus the ‘Palestinian issue’

Abstract

The bi-national option for the solution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict is as old as Zionism itself. The standard bi-national scenario envisaged an accommodation in a shared polity of separate Jewish and Palestinian identities. The Young Hebrews movement defied this paradigm by arguing that these identities were not national and should be incorporated into the Hebrew nation. This article analyses the Young Hebrews’ solution to the ‘Palestinian issue’ by showing that they used it as a tool to destroy Zionist hegemony in Israel and open the way to a radical geopolitical rearrangement of the entire Middle East.

Acknowledgment

The author thanks the Israel Institute for supporting financially his post-doctoral fellowship at the OCHJS.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. The argument probably began with Yitzhak Epstein’s 1907 ‘A Hidden Question’, which suggested a ‘benevolent colonialism’ as a remedy to this sensitive problem (Yitzhak Epstein, ‘A Hidden Question’, in Adam Shatz (Ed.) Prophets Outcast: A Century of Dissident Jewish Writing about Zionism and Israel (New York: Nation Books, 2004), pp. 35–52).

2. See Adi Gordon (Ed.) ‘Brit Shalom’ vehatziyonut hadu-Leumit: ‘hasheela haaravit’ kish’ela Yehudit (Jerusalem: Carmel, 2008). See also: Gil Eyal, The Disenchantment of the Orient: Expertise in Arab Affairs and the Israeli State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), pp. 65–8.

3. For a useful and accessible summary, see: Efraim Perlmutter, ‘Zionist Attitudes Towards the Arabs: 1902 Until Today’, available at https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/efraim-perlmutter/zionist-attitudes-towards-arabs-1902-until-today (accessed 20 December 2014).

4. Eyal, op. cit., Ref. 2, pp. 79–83.

5. Boas Evron, Jewish State or Israeli Nation? (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995), pp. 134–9.

6. Vladimir (Zeev) Jabotinsky, Izbrannoe (Jerusalem: Biblioteka-Aliya, 1989), pp. 230–8. See also: Raphaella Bilski Ben-Hur, Kol Yakhid hu Melekh: hamakhshava hakhevratit vehamdinit shel Zeev Jabotinsky (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1988), pp. 281–91, 329–32.

7. The central works by Horon and Ratosh, which constitute the main intellectual exposition of the ‘Canaanite’ ideology are: A.G. Horon, Eretz-Hakedem: Madrikh Histori umdini lamizrakh hakarov (Tel Aviv: Hermon, 1970); A.G. Horon, Kedem vaerev: Knaan – Toldot Eretz haivrim (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 2000); Yonatan Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a? (Tel Aviv: Hermon, 1967); Yonatan Ratosh, Reshit hayamim: Ptikhot Ivriyot (Tel Aviv: Hadar, 1982); Yonatan Ratosh, Sifrut Yehudit balashon haivrit: Ptikhot bevikoret uviv’ayot halashon (Tel Aviv: Hadar, 1982); Yonatan Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet: Measef Alef (Tel Aviv: Hadar, 1976).

8. See Yehoshua Porat, Shelah veet beyado: Sipur Khayav shel Uriel Shalah (Yonatan Ratosh) (Tel Aviv: Makhbarot lesifrut, 1989), pp. 121–3, 139–42; Yaacov Shavit, Meivri ad Knaani – Prakim betoldot haideologia vehautopia shel ‘hatkhiya haivrit’: mitziyonut radikalit leanti-tziyonut (Jerusalem: Domino, 1984, pp. 46–7, 87–9, 232–3; Yaacov Shavit: The New Hebrew Nation: A Study in Israeli Heresy and Fantasy (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp. 85–6, 92–5.

9. Shmuel Almog, Zionism and History: The Rise of a New Jewish Consciousness (New York & Jerusalem: St. Martin’s Press & Magness Press, 1987), p. 41.

10. Yasir Suleiman, The Arabic Language and National Identity: A Study in Ideology (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003), p. 166.

11. For analytic typologies of national foundational myths, see: John Coakley, ‘Mobilizing the Past: Nationalist Images of History’, Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 10(4) (2004), pp. 542–5; Anthony Smith, ‘Ethnic Myths and Ethnic Revivals’, European Journal of Sociology, 25(2) (2011), pp. 292–7; Anthony Smith, Myths and Memories of the Nation (Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 57–68, 264.

12. James S. Diamond, Homeland or Holy Land? The ‘Canaanite’ Critique of Israel (Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 118.

13. Yaacov Shavit, Meivri ad Knaani – Prakim betoldot haideologia vehautopia shel ‘hatkhiya haivrit’: mitziyonut Radikalit leanti-Tziyonut (Jerusalem: Domino, 1984); Yaacov Shavit, The New Hebrew Nation: A Study in Israeli Heresy and Fantasy op. cit., Ref. 8, (London: Frank Cass, 1987).

14. For an insightful critique of Shavit’s research that dissects his deficient methodology, see: Boas Evron, ‘Hamaase – uvavuato haakademit’, Yediot Aharonot, 2 March 1984, pp. 20–1.

15. Baruch Kurzweil, ‘Mahuta umekoroteha shel Tnuat “haivrim hatzeirim” (“haknaanim”)’, in Baruch Kurzweil, Sifrutenu hekhadasha – Hemshekh o Mahapekha? (Tel Aviv: Schocken, 1965), pp. 270–300. An abridged English version is available in Baruch Kurzweil, ‘The New “Canaanites” in Israel’, Judaism, 2(1) (1953), pp. 3–15.

16. Ibid., p. 11.

17. Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Masa haptikha’, in Yonatan Ratosh, Reshit hayamim, op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 198.

18. ‘The Land of Kedem’ is a geohistorical and geopolitical term employed by the Young Hebrews to point to the ‘genuine’ borders of the Hebrew homeland as they were in antiquity and ought to be in the future. It corresponds roughly with such geohistorical terms as ‘Mashriq’ or ‘Levant’ and encompasses Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Jordan (Horon, Eretz-Hakedem, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 53–104). The name ‘Kedem’ has several connotations in Hebrew, meaning ‘antiquity’, ‘east’ and ‘front’.

19. See for example Aharon Amir, ‘Reshit Akheret’, in Aharon Amir, Mit’aney Tsad: Leket Maamarim, 1949–1989 (Tel Aviv: Yaron Golan, 1991), pp. 13–6; Yoram Nimshi, ‘Lamut, Aval – Bead Ma?’, in Nurit Gertz and Rachel Weisbrod (Eds.) Hakvutza haknaanit – Sifrut veideologia (Tel Aviv: Hauniversita haptukha, 1986), pp. 44–7; Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Demoktatura’, in Yonatan Ratosh, Reshit hayamim, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 100–7; Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 65, 69–70. The classical work expressing the post-1948 youth’s disillusionment remains Uri Avneri’s Hatzad hasheni shel hamatbea (Tel Aviv: Shimoni, 1950).

20. Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Matrat hamilkhama: hashalom haivri’, in Ratosh, Reshit hayamim, op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 81.

21. Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Lemilkhemet Ezrakhim’, in Ibid., p. 91 (published originally in October 1949).

22. Ibid., pp. 92, 95.

23. Yehoshua Bentov (a pseudonym of Aharon Amir), ‘Mamlekhet Israel hatzalbanit?’, in Gertz, Weisbrod (Eds.) op. cit., Ref. 19, p. 26. See also: Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Bish’arei Eretz Haprat’, in Ratosh, Reshit hayamim, op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 75 (published in November 1948); Ratosh, ‘Demoktatura’, op. cit., Ref. 19, p. 106 (published in April 1949).

24. The exact quotation is: ‘The absorption of the massive immigration and the swift attachment of the thousands of immigrants to the soil were hardly possible had it not been for the catastrophe [shoah] which befell the Arabic-speaking dwellers of villages and cities’ (Yehoshua Bentov, ‘Meshek shel Ayara’, in Gertz, Weisbrod (Eds.) op. cit., Ref. 19, p. 34).

25. Yariv Eitam, ‘Haboker hekhadash’, Proza 17–8 (Aug.–Sep. 1977), p. 21. The story ends with the death of the Palestinian personage and his son from bullets fired possibly from the Arab Legion’s position (the narrative is somewhat ambiguous here). The story thus undermines two of the major Israeli historiographic myths regarding the 1948 war: that there was no official expulsion policy and that the Arab armies encouraged the Palestinians to leave.

26. Eitan Notev, ‘Hashevakh leelohim’, Ibid., pp. 23–5.

27. A fictional Palestinian village, whose depopulation and destruction at the hands of Israeli soldiers during the 1948 war was described in the story by S. Izhar (pen-name of Izhar Smilansky, 1916–2006), which he wrote in 1949 and published the following year. For the scandal surrounding ‘Khirbat Hiz'ah', see Anita Shapira, ‘Hirbet Hizah: Between Remembrance and Forgetting’, Jewish Social Studies new Series, 7(1) (Fall 2000), pp. 1–62. For Izhar’s personal and political background, see Nitsa Ben-Ari, ‘Hero or anti-Hero? S. Izhar’s Ambivalent Zionism and the First Sabra Generation’, in Mark LeVine and Gershon Shafir (Eds.) Struggle and Survival in Palestine/Israel (Berkeley – Los Angeles – London: University of California Press, 2012), pp. 85–103.

28. Ratosh, ‘Lemilkhemet Ezrakhim’, op. cit., Ref. 21, p. 92.

29. The image of the Palestinian in ‘Canaanite’ wartime prose is explored by Hannan Hever (‘Territoriality and Otherness in Hebrew Literature of the War of Independence’, in Laurence J. Silberstein and Robert L. Cohn (Eds.) The Other in Jewish Thought and History: Constructions of Jewish Culture and Identity (New York & London: New York University Press, 1994), pp. 236–57), though he doesn’t make any reference to the Young Hebrews’ political statements on the subject. Avner Holtzman’s more recent treatment of the 1948 Hebrew literature is no different in this respect (Avner Holtzman, ‘Political Aspects of the Literature of the Israeli War of Independence’, Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture, 31(2) (2012), pp. 191–215, esp. pp. 197, 201–3).

30. For the text of the poem, see Avoth Yeshurun, ‘Pesakh al Kukhim’, in Hannan Hever (Ed.) Al Tagidu beGat: haNakbah hafalestinit bashira haivrit, 1948–1958 (Tel Aviv: Zochrot/Parhesia/Pardes, 2010), pp. 112–6. For an analysis of the poem, see Hannan Hever, ‘“Lo Tekhat Gam Mipnei Al Tagidu beGat”: haNakbah hafalestinit bashira haivrit’, in Hever (Ed.) op. cit., pp. 35–41; Hannan Hever, ‘The Post-Zionist Condition’, Critical Inquiry, 38(3) (2012), pp. 637–48; Amos Noy, ‘Al haposkhim: “Yahndes Lo Lishkoakh”? Iyun bemila Akhat shel Avoth Yeshurun’, Teoria uvikoret, 41 (2013), pp. 199–221.

31. Significantly though, on at least two occasions Yeshurun stated plainly that he regarded the Jewish Holocaust and the Palestinian 1948 catastrophe (which he described as ‘shoah’ too) as similar occurrences and experiences (Noy, Ibid., pp. 201, 203).

32. Yitzhak Laor, ‘Veal Poilin Lo Lishkoakh’, Haaretz, 30 May 2002, available at http://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1.798314 (accessed 10 December 2012).

33. Bentov, op. cit., Ref. 24, pp. 34–6.

34. Bentov, op. cit., Ref. 23, p. 27 (emphasis mine).

35. Ibid., pp. 27–8; Ratosh, ‘Lemilkhemet Ezrakhim’, op. cit., Ref. 21, pp. 93–4. See also: H. Hadad (a pseudonym of Esra Sohar), ‘Mi Atem – haknaanim?’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, op. cit. Ref. 7, pp. 32–3; Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 37; Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Abdul Aziz Zu’bi umilkhamot Israel’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 90–1; Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Haleom haivri hekhadash’, in Ehud Ben-Ezer, Ein Shaananim betziyon: Sikhot al Mekhir hatziyonut (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1986), pp. 235–7.

36. Yonatan Ratosh, ‘Mavo’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, Ibid., p. 21. Iqrit and Bir’am were two Maronite villages in northern Israel. In 1948, the IDF asked their inhabitants to ‘temporarily vacate’ them for a few weeks. They were never let back (Meron Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000), pp. 161–2, 325–6).

37. Yehoshua Porat, Shelah veet beyado: Sipur Khayav shel Uriel Shelah (Yonatan Ratosh) (Tel Aviv: Makhbarot lesifrut, 1989), op. cit., Ref. 8, p. 264.

38. Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 115–6 (emphases in the original). It should be noted that an earlier version of the appeal made no mention of this idea; it was introduced in the revised proofreading on 4 June 1967 by Uzzi Ornan and Esra Sohar (a copy of the earlier proofs was given to me by Prof. Ornan in April 2012).

39. There is post-war evidence by Ratosh for using this slogan as early as 1966 (Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, Ibid., p. 62).

40. Ibid., pp. 15–7, 44, 48, 70–6; Hadad, op. cit., Ref. 35, p. 34.

41. Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 36 (emphasis in the original), 43–4. See also: Moti Avi-Yair [a pseudonym?], ‘Klitat Toshvei Aza’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 98–9 (published originally in September 1971); Amnon Katz, ‘Mearavim – leivrim’, in Ibid., pp. 83–9 (published originally in December 1968); Uzzi Ornan, ‘Hamilkhama vehashalom’, in Ibid., pp. 77–8 (published originally in December 1968).

42. Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, Ibid., pp. 38–9 (emphasis mine).

43. H. Hadad, ‘Ma “Hem” Rotzim’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 96–8 (published originally in November 1971); Adya Gur [Horon], ‘Hem Niklatim Maher’, in Ibid., pp. 323–4; Adya Gur, ‘Khufsha beRamallah’, in Ibid., pp. 321–2.

44. Aharon Amir, ‘Akhdut Titnu laaretz’, in Amir, op. cit., Ref. 19, p. 94 (published originally in May 1976). For Lincoln’s original words (about slavery) see: http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm (accessed 12 December 2012).

45. Diamond, op. cit., Ref. 12, pp. 95–6, 162 (n. 67); David Ohana, The Origins of Israeli Mythology: Neither Canaanites nor Crusaders (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 90; Porat, op. cit., Ref. 8, p. 344. It should be noted that Amir established the ‘Canaanite’ ‘Action Staff for the Retention of the Territories’ before the emergence of the Zionist ‘Movement for the Greater Land of Israel’.

46. This term is another feature of the Young Hebrews’ ideology, which differentiated between Arabs ‘proper’ (meaning original inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula) and the ‘Arabized’, that is, the descendants of the ancient Hebrews of the Land of Kedem who were assimilated over the ages into Arabic culture and language. The original Hebrew word was the neologism ‘arbaim’ (singular: ‘arbai’), meaning especially those who passively accepted Arabic identity and culture. Yonatan Ratosh, who was a prolific producer of Hebrew neologisms, used the affix ‘i’ to denote ‘pseudo’; hence, ‘arbai’ would literally mean ‘pseudo-Arab’ (Michal Ephratt, ‘Iconicity, Ratosh’s Lexical Innovations, and Beyond’, Semiotica, 157(1/4) (2005), pp. 91–2).The Young Hebrews made a rare use of the existing Hebrew word ‘mistaarvim’ (sing.: ‘mistaarev’), since it also meant one who became an Arab or dressed like an Arab of his/her own free will. Moreover, in the context of the Israeli border wars of the 1950s and the Intifada this word came to mean elite unit soldiers on an undercover mission in Palestinian surroundings (an email correspondence from Margalit Shinar [daughter of Adya Horon], 16.11.2009, 4.12.2009).

47. Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 65–6 (emphasis mine). Ratosh repeated this claim in a 1970 interview (Ben-Ezer, op. cit., Ref. 35, pp. 246–7).

48. Ben-Ezer, Ibid., pp. 246–50; Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, Ibid., pp. 62–8, 74–5 (Israel, according to Ratosh, shares part of the blame by agreeing to treat the refugee problem as political – a corollary of the Zionist approach).

49. Ratosh, Ibid., pp. 35–6.

50. Porat, op. cit., Ref. 8, p. 343.

51. Ben-Ezer, op. cit., Ref. 35, pp. 236–7, 241, 244; Diamond, op. cit., Ref. 12, p. 68; Evron, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 211, 215; Porat, op. cit., Ref. 8, p. 343; Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 12–4, 40–7.

52. Ratosh, Ibid., p. 75.

53. Uzzi Ornan, ‘“Haleumiyut hapalestinait”’, in Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 61–8 (published originally in November 1971); Uzzi Ornan, ‘Haperush haklasi shel FATAH’, in Ibid., pp. 70–1 (published originally in June 1973).

54. Ben-Ezer, op. cit., Ref. 35, pp. 246–50; Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 39, 47–53; Ratosh, ‘Mavo’, op. cit., Ref. 36, pp. 17–9; Ratosh (Ed.) Minitzakhon lemapolet, Ibid., pp. 316–8. It is therefore unsurprising that the Young Hebrews were highly critical of the Israeli ‘peace camp’.

55. Aharon Amir, ‘El Akhi haaravi, Yoshev haaretz’, in Amir, op. cit., Ref. 19, pp. 159–60 (originally published in July 1988; interestingly, when addressing Arabic speakers, Amir used the word ‘Arab’ [‘aravi’] and not ‘Arabized’ [‘arbai’]).

56. Aharon Amir, ‘Pe lahem velo Yedabru’, in Ibid., pp. 162–3; Aharon Amir, ‘Hashmiu Kol!’, in Ibid., pp. 166–8 (originally published in July 1988); Aharon Amir, ‘Maarakha al hanefesh’, in Ibid., pp. 176–9 (originally published in spring 1986).

57. Amir, ‘Pe lahem velo Yedabru’, Ibid., p. 163.

58. Aharon Amir, ‘Lehafshit et Shulamit – hatkhiya haivrit: Brera o Gzera’, Nativ, 3(74) (June 2000), p. 54; Aharon Amir, ‘Shalom Ivri leeretz-Meriva’, in Aharon Amir, Guy Maayan, Amir Or (Eds.) Akheret: Iyunim benos’ey Avar, Hove, Atid (Jerusalem: Carmel, 2002), pp. 13–26.

59. Dotan used the standard Hebrew phrase ‘pitron sofi’, but his memorandums make it obvious that he meant it literally, without implying any ‘Endlosung’.

60. Israeli State Archives, MFA/2445/2. See also: Eyal, op. cit., Ref. 2, pp. 122–4; Gabriel Piterberg, ‘Erasures’, in Shatz (Ed.) op. cit., Ref. 1, pp. 158–61.

61. After the Holocaust and the establishment of Israel the dichotomy Jew/Hebrew was significantly blurred in Zionist discourse (see: Yael Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 21–9, 195).

62. Hillel Cohen, ‘Masorot Muslemiyot Meshupatzot al Shivat Israel leartzo basiakh hatziyoni-Meshikhi’, Jama’a, 10 (2003), pp. 169–85; Eyal, op. cit., Ref. 2, pp. 33–61; Ohana, op. cit., Ref. 45, pp. 73–4, 182–4 (see more extensively in the Hebrew version: David Ohana, Lo Knaanim, lo Tzalbanim: Mekorot hamitologia haisraelit (Jerusalem: The Shalom Hartman Institute, the Faculty of Law, Bar Ilan University, Keter, 2008), pp. 357–9); Arieh Bruce Saposnik, Becoming Hebrew: The Creation of a Jewish National Culture in Ottoman Palestine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 146–68, 181–2.

63. Ratosh even cited a 1917 book co-authored by David Ben Gurion and Itzhak Ben-Tzvi (later Israel’s second president) to support this view, though he was probably aware of the irony of the act (Ratosh, 1967 – uma Hal’a?, op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 39).

64. Ron Kuzar, Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study (Berlin – New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001), p. 217.

65. Incidentally, these two dissented from Ratosh’s stubborn doctrinarism. Recall furthermore that the Young Hebrews’ journal Alef, closed down in 1953, was renewed between 1967 and 1972 and that ‘Canaanite’ historiography became available to the public in full only in 2000, with the posthumous publication of Horon’s Kedem vaerev.

66. Diamond, op. cit., Ref. 12, pp. 4, 6, 46, 77, 139 (n. 18).

67. Ohana, op. cit., Ref. 45, pp. 22–3. Ohana’s research is the most encompassing investigation of latent ‘Canaanism’, which he defines as one of the basic formulae or ‘metaphors of identity’ functioning in the Israeli society.

68. Klaus Hofmann, ‘Canaanism’, Middle Eastern Studies, 47(2) (2011), pp. 278–9.

69. Bar an unsuccessful attempt by Aharon Amir during the Lebanese civil war to forge an alliance with Lebanese Maronite forces reliant on Israel (Amir, ‘Hashmiu kol!’, op. cit., Ref. 56, pp. 166–7; Diamond, op. cit., Ref. 12, pp. 96–7, 162 (n. 71)).

70. Yehoshua Porat, ‘Knaaniyut Ivrit ukhnaaniyut Arvit’, in Dani Yaacobi (Ed.) Eretz Akhat ushnei Amim ba (Jerusalem: Magness, 1999), pp. 88–92; Ifrakh Zilberman, ‘Knaaniyut Falestinit’, in Ibid., pp. 96–102.

71. When asked by Ehud Ben-Ezer why would the Arabs concur with his proposals, Ratosh replied: ‘We will establish for them kindergartens, primary and secondary secular Hebrew schools, draft them to the IDF … and then will ask them; you will see then what their answer would be. They will grow as Hebrews’ (Ben-Ezer, op. cit., Ref. 35, p. 236). This position might explain why the Young Hebrews never considered that local Arab nationalism might counter Pan-Arabism rather than feed upon it; in fact, Palestinian nationalism has played a central role in reviving the tension between ‘qawmiyya’ and ‘wataniyya’ after 1967.

72. I have no information that Amir ever tried to publish his Intifada appeals to the Palestinians in Arabic (or, for that matter, that the Young Hebrews ever took the trouble of appealing in Arabic to the ‘Arabized’).

73. Aharon Amir, ‘Smol Yemin, Smol Yemin, Smol’, in Amir, op. cit., Ref. 19, pp. 136–8.

74. I address this issue more deeply in my doctoral dissertation (Romans Vaters, ‘“A Hebrew from Samaria, not a Jew from Yavneh”: Adya Gur Horon (1907–1972) and the Articulation of Hebrew Nationalism’, submitted to the University of Manchester in March 2015, Chapter 5).

75. Yaacov Shavit, ‘Bakhazon, baesh uvakherev’, Haaretz Literary Supplement, 6 April 2001, p. H5.