A Household Full of Bodies: Neoliberalism, Care and “the Political”

Abstract

This article explores “the political” of political economy through an analysis of neoliberalised care. Borrowing Glyn Daly's metaphor of the political economy as a disorganised household, where the “political” disrupts the neat order of the oikonomia, we argue that in neoliberalism care is a central site of the political. Through Foucauldian biopolitics we define commodification as a central logic in the governance of care, and situate it in the wider context of neoliberal governmentality. Conceptualising care as a corporeal relation, and following Annemarie Mol's logic of care, we show how, despite the constant attempts to domesticate it, the hegemonic discourse fails to fully subsume care within the “order of the household”. Examining the ruptures produced when care resists its governance, the article demonstrates how the corporeal relatedness of care continues to open up spaces for the political, hence ensuring that the economy remains political.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the editors of the special section, the four anonymous referees as well as the commentators of the earlier versions of the article in various conferences and seminars. For funding, we remain grateful to the Kone Foundation and Eemil Aaltonen's Foundation (Hoppania) as well as the Eino Jutikkala Fund and the Academy of Finland project 132403 (Vaittinen).

Funding and Disclosure Statement

Hanna-Kaisa Hoppania's work was supported by personal scholarships from the Kone Foundation and Eemil Aaltonen's Foundation, and Tiina Vaittinen's work by the Eino Jutikkala Fund as well as an Academy of Finland project “The Body Politic of Migration: Embodied and Silent Choreographies of Political Agency” [project no: 132403]. The article is original and the research does not involve any conflicts of interests.

About the Authors

Hanna-Kaisa Hoppania is a doctoral student in Political Science in the Department of Political and Economic Studies at the University of Helsinki. Her PhD research explores the politics and governance of care, through a case study concerning legislation of elder care services. Her recent works include “Elder Care Policy in Finland: Remedies for Crisis?”, in Retrenchment or Renewal? Welfare States in Times of Economic Crisis, edited by Guðmundur Jónsson and Kolbeinn Stefánsson (Helsinki: NorWel Studies in Historical Welfare State Research 6, 2013); and, “States of Gender Democracy: Variations of a Theme in Finland”, in Yvonne Galligan (ed.), States of Democracy (Routledge), co-authored with with A.M. Holli, is forthcoming.

Tiina Vaittinen is a doctoral student in Peace and Conflict Studies at the Tampere Peace Research Institute TAPRI, University of Tampere, Finland. In her PhD project she traces the corporeal relations of care in the global (bio)political economy, with the help of Filipino nurses working in ageing Finland. She has published in the International Feminist Journal of Politics and Women's Studies International Forum.

Notes

1. Erin Manning, Relationscapes: Movement, Art, Philosophy (Cambridge, MA/London: The MIT Press, 2009), p. 231, n. 19.

2. Glyn Daly, “The Political Economy of (Im)Possibility”, in M. De Goede (ed.), International Political Economy and Poststructural Politics (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 177.

3. Ibid., p. 181.

4. Ibid., pp. 191–193.

5. E.g. Angus Cameron, Jen Dickinson and Nicola Smith (eds.), Body/State (Farnham and Burlington: Ashgate, 2013); Silvia Federici, Caliban and the Witch (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 2009); Elina Penttinen, Globalization, Prostitution and Sex-Trafficking: Corporeal Politics (London: Routledge, 2008); Sébastien Rioux, “Embodied Contradictions: Capitalism, Social Reproduction and Body Formation”, Women's Studies International Forum (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.wsif.2014.03.008.

6. Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978–1979 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

7. Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); see also Thomas Lemke, “‘The Birth of Biopolitics': Michel Foucault's Lecture at the Collège de France on Neo-Liberal Governmentality”, Economy and Society, Vol. 30, No. 2 (2001), pp. 190–207.

8. Cf. Marianne Marchand and Anne Sisson Runyan, Gender and Global Restructuring. Sightings, Sites and Resistances (2nd ed.) (London and New York: Routledge, 2011).

9. Annemarie Mol, The Logic of Care: Health and the Problem of Patient Choice (London: Routledge, 2008).

10. Rhianna Mahon and Fiona Robinson, “Introduction”, in R. Mahon and F. Robinson (eds.), Feminist Ethics and Social Policy: Towards a New Global Political Economy of Care (Vancouver and Toronto: UBC Press, 2011), p. 1.

11. Kimberly A. Chang and L.H.M. Ling, “Globalisation and its Intimate Other: Filipina Domestic Workers in Hong Kong”, in Marchand and Runyan, op. cit., pp. 27–43.

12. Isabella Bakker, “Social Reproduction and the Constitution of a Gendered Political Economy: Review Essay”, New Political Economy, Vol. 12, No. 4 (2007), pp. 541–556.

13. E.g. Pauline G. Barber, “Women's Work Unbound: Philippine Development and Global Restructuring”, in Marchand and Runyan, op. cit., pp. 143–162; Chang and Ling, op. cit.; Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London: Pandora, 1989); Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie R. Hochschild, Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy (London: Granta, 2003); Nancy Folbre, The Invisible Heart: Economics and Family Values (New York: New Press, 2001); V. Spike Peterson, A Critical Rewriting of Global Political Economy: Integrating Reproductive, Productive, and Virtual Economies (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 78–112; Jan Jindy Pettman, “Women on the Move: Globalisation and Labour Migration from South and Southeast Asian States”, Global Society, Vol. 12, No. 3 (1998), pp. 389–405; Rioux, op. cit.

14. Victoria Held, The Ethics of Care. Personal, Political and Global (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Selma Sevenhuijsen, Citizenship and the Ethics of Care: Feminist Considerations on Justice, Morality and Politics (London: Routledge, 1998); Joan C. Tronto, Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (New York: Routledge, 1993); Fiona Robinson, Globalizing Care: Ethics, Feminist Theory, and International Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999); The Ethics of Care: A Feminist Approach to Human Security (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011).

15. E.g. Mahon and Robinson, Feminist Ethics and Social Policy, op. cit.

16. Cf. Berenice Fisher and Joan Tronto, “Toward a Feminist Theory of Caring”, in K. Abel and M.K. Nelson (eds.), Circles of Care: Work and Identity in Women's Lives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1990), pp. 35–61.

17. Tronto, op. cit., p. 101, emphasis added.

18. Cf. Eva Feder Kittay, with Bruce Jennings and Angela A. Wasunna, “Dependency, Difference and the Global Ethic of Longterm Care”, The Journal of Political Philosophy, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2005), pp. 443–469.

19. Maia Green and Victoria Lawson, “Recentring Care: Interrogating the Commodification of Care”, Social and Cultural Geography, Vol. 12 (2011), pp. 639–654.

20. Maurice Hamington, Embodied Care: Jane Addams, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Feminist Ethics (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2004); Lise Widding Isaksen, “Toward a Sociology of (Gendered) Disgust: Images of Bodily Decay and the Social Organization of Care Work”, Journal of Family Issues, Vol. 23, No. 7 (2002), pp. 791–811; Silva Tedre, “Tukisukkahousut sosiaalipolitiikkaan: Inhomaterialistinen tutkimusote”, in E. Jokinen, M. Kaskisaari and M. Husso (eds.), Ruumis töihin! Käsite ja käytäntö (Tampere: Vastapaino, 2004), pp. 41–64; Julia Twigg, “The Spatial Ordering of Care: Public and Private in Bathing Support at Home”, Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 21, No. 4 (1999), pp. 381–400; Bathing—the Body and Community Care (London and New York: Routledge, 2000).

21. Cf. Martha Fineman, “The Vulnerable Subject: Anchoring Equality in the Human Condition”, Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, Vol. 20, No. 1 (2008), pp. 1–23; Carol Bacchi and Christine Beasley, “Citizen Bodies: Is Embodied Citizenship a Contradiction in Terms?”, Critical Social Policy, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2002), pp. 324–352; “The Limits of Trust and Respect: Rethinking Dependency”, Social Alternatives, Vol. 24, No. 4 (2005), pp. 55–59; Christine Beasley and Carol Bacchi, “Envisaging a New Politics for an Ethical Future: Beyond Trust, Care and Generosity—towards an Ethic of Social Flesh”, Feminist Theory, Vol. 8, No. 3 (2007), pp. 279–298; Seyla Benhabib, “The Generalized Other and the Concrete Other: The Kohlberg-Gilligan Controversy and Feminist Theory”, Praxis International, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1986), pp. 402–424; Green and Lawson, op. cit.; Kittay, op. cit.

22. For a thorough discussion, see Tiina Vaittinen, “The Power of the Vulnerable Body: A New Political Understanding of Care”, International Feminist Journal of Politics (2014), doi: 10.1080/14616742.2013.876301. Our conception of care as a “corporeal relation” seems to come close also to Carol Bacchi and Chris Beasley's concept of “social flesh”, although the two have been developed through different theoretical exercises. See Bacchi and Beasley, “Citizen Bodies” and “The Limits of Trust”, op. cit.; Beasley and Bacchi, op. cit.

23. Cf. Manning, Relationscapes, op. cit.

24. Elizabeth Grosz, Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994); Manning, Relationscapes, op. cit.; E. Manning, “What if it Didn't all Begin and End with Containment? Towards a Leaky Sense of Self”, Body & Society, Vol. 15, No. 3 (2009), pp. 33–45; “Always More than One: The Collectivity of a Life”, Body & Society, Vol. 16, No. 1 (2010), pp. 117–127; Annemarie Mol, The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press, 2002); P. Moss and I. Dyck, “Body, Corporeal Space, and Legitimating Chronic Illness: Women Diagnosed with M.E.”, Antipode, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1999), pp. 372–397.

25. Moss and Dyck, op. cit.

26. Mol, The Body Multiple, op. cit.

27. Cf. M. Foucault, “The Subject and Power”, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1982), pp. 777–795.

28. Cf. Tedre, op. cit.; Twigg, “The Spatial Ordering of Care”, op. cit.; Twigg, Bathing, op. cit.

29. Cf. Green and Lawson, op. cit., p. 647.

30. Twigg, “The Spatial Ordering of Care”, op. cit., p. 397.

31. Anneli Anttonen and Liisa Häikiö, “Care ‘Going Market’: Finnish Elderly-Care Policies in Transition”, Nordic Journal of Social Research, Vol. 2 (2011), pp. 70–90; Mary Daly and Jane Lewis, “The Concept of Social Care and the Analysis of Contemporary Welfare States”, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2000), pp. 281–298; Birgit Pfau-Effinger and Tine Rostgaard (eds.), Care between Work and Welfare in European Societies (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); Tine Rostgaard, “Care as You Like It: The Construction of a Consumer Approach in Home Care in Denmark”, Nordic Journal of Social Research, Vol. 2 (2011), pp. 54–69; S. Wrede, L. Henriksson, H. Høst, S. Johansson and B. Dybbroe (eds.), Care Work in Crisis: Reclaiming the Nordic Ethos of Care (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2008).

32. De Goede, op. cit.

33. Yannis Stavrakakis, Lacan and the Political (London: Routledge, 1999).

34. Jason Glynos and David Howarth, Logics of Critical Explanation in Social and Political Theory (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 113.

35. Jenny Edkins, Poststructuralism and International Relations: Bringing the Political Back In (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 1999), p. 2, emphasis in the original.

36. Ibid., p. 126, emphasis added. There is no single definition for “the” post-structural definition of “the political”, but a wide array of theorists have developed it, each with their own nuances. The present article is not the place to go into that debate in any detail. We cite Edkins, since she has built on the work of a range of theorists, including Ernesto Laclau, Claude Lefort, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Jan-Luc Nancy, Chantal Mouffe and Jacques Lacan, while also linking the distinction of politics/political to Max Weber's work on bureaucracy. We think her account provides an adequately broad point of departure for our argumentation.

37. Foucault, “The Subject and Power”, op. cit., p. 790.

38. E.g. “Carema Admits Flaws in Patient's Starvation Death”, The Local. Sweden's News in English [online], 3 December 2011, available: <http://www.thelocal.se/37714/20111203/> (accessed 16 October 2013); E. Kersey, “Accusations of Neglect after Maggot-Infected Leg Needs Amputation”, Digital Journal [online], December 2012, available: <http://digitaljournal.com/article/340182> (accessed 16 October 2013); A. Sutcliffe, “We All Have a Responsibility to Improve Elderly Care”, The Guardian [online], 5 May 2014, available: <http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/may/05/responsibility-improve-elderly-care-home-abuse-panorama> (accessed 26 August 2014).

39. E.g. Daniel Boffey, “The Care Workers Left Behind as Private Equity Targets the NHS”, The Observer [online], 9 August 2014, available: <http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/aug/09/care-workers-private-equity-targets-the-nhs> (accessed 26 August 2014); R. Carroll, “Striking Los Angeles Social Workers: ‘Social Worker-to-Child Ratios' Unsafe”, The Guardian [online], 6 December 2013, available: <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/06/los-angeles-social-worker-strike-excessive-child-abuse-cases> (accessed 26 August 2014).

40. Cf. Barbara Cruikshank, The Will to Empower. Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1999), p. 2.

41. The changes also have a gendered dimension. Many neoliberal processes of restructuring have to do with the disintegration of the patriarchal rules of the “household”, and their replacement with a neoliberal organisation of care resources. In patriarchy, responsibilities of care and reproduction were women's responsibilities, and hence the order “was not simply a means of privileging men [but also] a means of ensuring an adequate supply of care” (Folbre, op. cit., p. 20). Today, the devalorised care work is increasingly the responsibility of not necessarily women, but of lower classes and ethnic and racialised minorities.

42. “Radical” may not be a term easily associated with the seemingly “soft” realm of care. Yet, if taken seriously, recognising care as a corporeal relation is one of the most radical moves one could take in the present neoliberal order.

43. The creation and shape of care markets differ considerably between countries with different employment and institutional structures. Marketisation is also intertwined with attempts to sustain the ideal of informal family care. In practice these developments have largely led to mixed systems of care provision, increases in private provision, family care and cash-for-care schemes, and to a somewhat invisible development of often undeclared jobs in the household-oriented service industry. E.g. Peterson, op. cit., pp. 84–112; C.A. Simonazzi, “Care Regimes and National Employment Models”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 33, No. 2 (2009), pp. 211–232; Clare Ungerson, “Commodified Care Work in European Labour Markets”, European Societies, Vol. 5, No. 4 (2003), pp. 377–396.

44. Green and Lawson, op. cit., p. 640.

45. Fiona Williams, “Migration and Care: Themes, Concepts and Challenges”, Social Policy and Society, Vol. 9, No. 3 (2010), pp. 390–392; Hanna-Kaisa Hoppania, “Elder Care Policy in Finland: Remedies for Crisis?”, in Guðmundur Jónsson and Kolbeinn Stefánsson (eds.), Retrenchment or Renewal? Welfare States in Times of Economic Crisis (Helsinki: NordWel Studies in Historical Welfare State Research 6, 2013), pp. 252–269.

46. F. Colombo, A. Llena-Nozal, J. Mercier and F. Tjadens, Help Wanted? Providing and Paying for Long-Term Care (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011).

47. Ehrenreich and Hochschild, op. cit.; Arlie R. Hochschild, “Global Care Chains and Emotional Surplus Value”, in W. Hutton and A. Giddens (eds.), On the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism (London: Jonathan Cape, 2000), pp. 130–146; S. Huang, L.L. Thang and M. Toyota, “Transnational Mobilities for Care: Rethinking the Dynamics of Care in Asia”, Global Networks, Vol. 12, No. 2 (2012), pp. 129–134; Lise Widding Isaksen, Global Care Work: Gender and Migration in Nordic Societies (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2010); Helma Lutz, The New Maids: Transnational Women and the Care Economy (London: Zed Books, 2011); Helma Lutz (ed.), Migration and Domestic Work: A European Perspective on a Global Theme (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008).

48. Tiina Vaittinen, “Reading Global Care Chains as Migrant Trajectories: A Theoretical Framework for the Understanding of Structural Change”, Women's Studies International Journal (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.wsif.2014.01.009; Nicola Yeates, Globalizing Care Economies and Migrant Workers: Explorations in Global Care Chains (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

49. Nancy Fraser, The Wages of Care: Reproductive Labour as Fictitious Commodity, lecture by the Humanitas Visiting Professor in Women's Rights, Cambridge, 9 March 2011, available: <http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/events/1535/> (accessed 23 August 2013).

50. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (London: Tavistock, 1973); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, 1977).

51. Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, “Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government”, The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 43, No. 2 (1992), pp. 173–205.

52. Jemima Repo, “The Biopolitics of Gender”, academic dissertation, University of Helsinki (Helsinki: Unigrafia, 2011), p. 173.

53. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit.; Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, op. cit.; Lemke, op. cit.

54. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit., pp. 30 ff.

55. Ibid., passim.

56. Ibid., p. 118.

57. Ibid., p. 120.

58. Ibid., p. 121, emphasis added.

59. E.g. Hanne Marlene Dahl, “Neo-liberalism Meets the Nordic Welfare States: Gaps and Silences”, NORA, Vol. 20, No. 4 (2012), pp. 283–288; “A View from the Inside: Recognition and Redistribution in the Nordic Welfare State from a Gender Perspective”, Acta Sociologica, Vol. 47, No. 4 (2004), pp. 325–337.

60. L. Gray, K. Berg, B. Fries, J. Henrard, J. Hirdes, K. Steel and J. Morris, “Sharing Clinical Information across Care Settings: The Birth of an Integrated Assessment System”, BMC Health Services Research, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2009), available: <http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/9/71> (accessed 23 August 2013); Brett Neilson, “Ageing, Experience, Biopolitics: Life's Unfolding”, Body & Society, Vol. 18, No. 3–4 (2012), pp. 48–49.

61. I. Gélinas, L. Gauthier, M. McIntyre and S. Gauthier (1999), “Development of a Functional Measure for Persons with Alzheimer's Disease: The Disability Assessment for Dementia”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 53, No. 5 (1999), pp. 471–481.

62. S. Woolhandler, T. Campbell and D.U. Himmelstein, “Costs of Health Care Administration in the United States and Canada”, The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 349, No. 8 (2003), pp. 768–775.

63. K. Brunila, T. Kurki, E. Lahelma, J. Lehtonen, R. Mietola and T. Palmu, “Multiple Transitions: Educational Policies and Young People's Post-Compulsory Choices”, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 55, No. 3 (2011), pp. 307–324; Hanna-Kaisa Hoppania, “Care as a Site of Political Struggle”, academic dissertation, University of Helsinki (forthcoming).

64. Caterina Calleman, “Ett marginellt problem? Om den arbetsrättsliga, skatterätsliga och socialrättsliga bakgrunden till produktionen av otryggt (‘prekärt’) arbete i privata hem”, in B. Nyström, Ö Edström and J. Malmberg (eds.), Nedslag i den nya arbetsrätten (Malmö: Liber, 2012), pp. 194–221.

65. Ungerson, op. cit.

66. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit., p. 147.

67. Ibid., p. 148.

68. E.g. Anttonen and Häikiö, op. cit.

69. E.g. Ehrenreich and Hochschild, op. cit.

70. Laura Kalliomaa-Puha, “Contracts as Usual? Pros and Cons of the Social Sector Client Contracts”, Juridiska Föreningen i Finland, No. 3–4 (2009), pp. 343–350. In fact, some care research seems to embrace these abovementioned, neoliberal discourses in its analysis. E.g. S.A. Butler, “A Fourth Subject Position of Care”, Hypatia, Vol. 27, No. 2 (2012), pp. 390–406.

71. E.g. Maria Fannin, “The Burden of Choosing Wisely: Biopolitics at the Beginning of Life”, Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, Vol. 20, No. 3 (2013), pp. 273–289; Riikka Homanen, “Doing Pregnancy, the Unborn, and the Maternity Health Care Institution”, academic dissertation, University of Tampere, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2013, available: <http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-44-9014-9> (accessed 25 August 2014).

72. Cf. Homanen, op. cit. This is not to say such policies of maternity care cannot have emancipatory and empowering potential. Our aim here is not to judge which of the tools of neoliberal governance are commendable and which are not, but merely to underline the political nature of the policies that are often represented as apolitical technical improvements. On the complexity of governance, citizenship and empowerment, see Cruikshank, op. cit.

73. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit., p. 241.

74. Ibid., p. 144.

75. Neilson, op. cit., p. 45.

76. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit., pp. 63–65.

77. Ibid., p. 268.

78. Ibid., p. 269.

79. Ibid., p. 270, emphasis added.

80. Fannin, op. cit.

81. Bacchi and Beasley, “Citizen Bodies”, op cit.; Vaittinen, “The Power of the Vulnerable Body”, op. cit.

82. Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, op. cit., p. 252.

83. Cited in Neilson, op. cit., p. 56.

84. Mol, The Logic of Care, op. cit.

85. Ibid., p. 83.

86. Ibid., p. 14.

87. Ibid., p. 25.

88. John Braithwaite, Toni Makkai and Valerie Braithwaite, Regulating Aged Care: Ritualism and the New Pyramid (Cheltenham and Northampton: Edgar Elgar, 2007), p. 7.

89. Ibid.; R.C.W. Hall, “Ethical and Legal Implications of Managed Care”, General Hospital Psychiatry, Vol. 19, No. 3 (1997), pp. 200–208.

90. E.g. R.M. Werner and D.A. Asch, “The Unintended Consequences of Publicly Reporting Quality Information”, The Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 293, No. 10 (2005), pp. 1239–1244.

91. K. Postle, “The Social Work Side is Disappearing: I Guess it Started with Us Being

Called Care Managers”, Practice, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2001), pp. 3–18.

92. P.C. Kontos, K. Miller and G.J. Mitchell, “Neglecting the Importance of the Decision Making and Care Regimes of Personal Support Workers: A Critique of Standardization of Care Planning through the RAI/MDS”, Gerontologist, Vol. 50, No. 3 (2010), pp. 352–362.

93. Dahl, “Neo-liberalism Meets the Nordic Welfare States”, op. cit., p. 285.

94. Karen Barad, Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).

95. Malin Åkerström, “Slaps, Punches, Pinches—But Not Violence: Boundary-Work in Nursing Homes for the Elderly”, Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 25, No. 4 (2002), pp. 515–536; Wendy Austin, “Compassion Fatigue: The Experience of Nurses”, Ethics and Social Welfare, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2009), pp. 195–214; Albert Banerjee, Tamara Daly, Pat Armstrong, Marta Szebehely, Hugh Armstrong and Stirling Lafrance, “Structural Violence in Long-Term, Residential Care for Older People: Comparing Canada and Scandinavia”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 74, No. 3 (2012), pp. 390–398; Folbre, op. cit., p. 51; Gladys C. Keidel, “Burnout and Compassion Fatigue among Hospice Caregivers”, American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Care, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2002), pp. 200–205; L. Lloyd, A. Banerjee, C.F. Harrington, F. Jacobsen and M. Szebehely, “‘It's a Scandal!’ Comparing the Causes and Consequences of Nursing Home Media Scandals in Five Countries”, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, Vol. 34, No. 1/2 (2014), pp. 2–18; Thomas J. Rippon, “Aggression and Violence in Health Care Professions”, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 31, No. 2 (2000), pp. 452–460.

96. Donna Baines, “Staying with People Who Slap Us Around: Gender, Juggling Responsibilities and Violence in Paid (and Unpaid) Care Work”, Gender, Work and Organization, Vol. 13, No. 2 (2006), pp. 129–151.

97. Banerjee et al., op. cit.

98. Boffey, op. cit.; Carroll, op. cit.; Lloyd et al., op. cit.

99. It must be noted that, while the neoliberal system does not recognise the need and allow adequate resources for care, it also does not recognise the positive spillovers, side-effects and externalities of caring that it relies on. E.g. Folbre, op. cit., p. 50; Kathleen Lynch and Judy Walsh, “Love, Care and Solidarity: What Is and Is Not Commodifiable”, in K. Lynch, J. Baker and M. Lyons (eds.), Affective Equality: Love, Care and Injustice (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 35–53.

100. Cf. Daly, op. cit., p. 185.

101. Cf. Vaittinen, “Reading Global Care Chains”, op. cit.

102. Cf. Lloyd et al., op. cit.; Hoppania, “Care as a Site of Political Struggle”, op. cit.