Mandatory community-based learning in U.S. urban high schools: fair equality of opportunity?

Abstract

This study explores participant experiences at two contrasting high schools in a large, urban school district in crisis who implemented mandatory community-based learning (CBL) (e.g. community service, work-based internships) as a policy of reform. Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness is used to examine capacity of the district formal policy to achieve fair equality of opportunity central to its democratic aims and purposes. Researchers found disparities in equity and access was associated with critical agencies exercised on the part of key school personnel (e.g. internship coordinator) who navigated and resisted contextual structural barriers (i.e. transportation limitations, employer inflexibility, neighborhood economic conditions, cultural and religious norms) differently. Findings suggest implications for U.S. urban school districts with formal policies of mandatory CBL including consideration of local context and exercise of critical agency at multiple district levels prior to implementation in order to build capacity for formal equality of opportunity.

Acknowledgement

We give special acknowledgement to my educational leadership colleague Dr John Taylor who inspired us with Rawls’ (2001) framework and notions of fairness, equality, and access.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1. Based on survey data from earlier studies, all MCS seniors fit within one of five different completion categories of the district’s mandatory CBL programme: (a) did not complete any of the requirements, (b) finished all 90 h but did not complete any of the requirements on schedule, (c) finished all 90 h but completed one requirement on schedule only, (d) completed two requirements on schedule only, and (e) completed all three requirements (i.e. community service in 10th grade, unpaid internship in 11th grade, paid internship in 12th grade) on schedule. A chi-squared test indicated that significant differences existed between category of CBL programme completion and district high school attended χ² (64, N = 1738) = 292.59, p < .001.

2. Bountiful High School had by far the highest proportion of seniors who completed all three requirements on schedule (21%) compared to all other district high schools with a completion rate ranging 0–8.8% (M = 3.7%). The earlier studies indicated that no student failed to graduate because of the district’s mandatory CBL programme, which suggests students were given credit for either not completing all of the requirements or completing them out of sequence. Non-completion of some CBL components and on different time tables may diminish the development effects on students. For a more extensive review of the literature on the various CBL components and its intended developmental benefits, see Bennett (2007, 2009).

3. For a more extensive review of the literature on service learning in high school including various forms and criticisms, please see Bennett (2009).

4. The original evaluation study of the MCS Internship Programme was grant-funded and not conducted as a result of a contract with the school district (see Hawley & Marks, 2006).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jeffrey V. Bennett

Jeffrey V. Bennett is an associate professor in Department of Educational Policy Studies and Practice at The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210069, Tucson, AZ 85721-0069, USA. Email: [email protected]. His research interests include collaborative educational leadership, school-community partnerships, civic and community capacity building for educational transformation.

Thomas L. Alsbury

Thomas L. Alsbury is a professor at in the School of Education and Director at the Center on Superintendency and District Governance at Seattle Pacific University, School of Education, 3307 Third Ave. W, Suite 202, Seattle, WA 98119-1950, USA. Email: [email protected]. His research interests are educational leadership, organizational innovativeness and the superintendency.

Jingjing Fan

Jingjing Fan is a doctoral student in the Educational Leadership Programme at the University of Arizona, Education Building, Room 254, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. Email: [email protected].