Leadership sacralization in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools: a Jungian lens review and analysis

ABSTRACT

This review and ontological analysis will explore how the concept of leadership could be sacralized in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools. I aim to challenge education researchers and leaders to recognize the significance of this under researched area of study. I will expand on research that employed institutional theory to explore how schools legitimize their claim to be international. My hypothesis is that these schools could strengthen institutional legitimacy by adopting a Jungian archetypal approach to international mindedness education that could sacralize leadership space. Much of the small body of literature related to leadership sacralization focused on a corporate rather than the educational context, and there are no known studies that directly addressed my hypothesis. My research aims include a contribution to theory development in this area as well as recommendations for future evaluation and expansion of the understandings gained in this paper.

Is the sacred… less the elephant in the room – the thing which dare not be mentioned – and more the room itself – the space within which leadership works?

– Keith Grint (2010, p. 91)

Introduction

The sacred ‘room’ that makes leadership possible (Grint, 2010, p. 91) inhabits the overlapping space between the physical world and our imagination. I will explore how leadership space could be sacralized in International Education. This umbrella term can be used to describe a range of research fields in a variety of contexts (Dolby & Rahman, 2008, pp. 676–677). I will focus on the ‘international schools’ area of study where the majority of researchers are working practitioners like myself (Dolby & Rahman, 2008, p. 693). My understanding of these institutions is informed by my experiences as both an International Baccalaureate (IB) graduate and educator in ‘Elite Traditional’ (Bunnell, 2021a, p. 253) international schools that are ideologically driven and commonly represent a wide variety of nations with a regular turnover of students and faculty.

Over the past half century, the IB has spread to over 5,300 schools in 158 countries (International Baccalaureate, 2021a, para 2–3). It provides four internationally recognized education programs: Primary Years Program (ages 3–12), Middle Years Program (ages 11–16), Career-related Program (ages 16–19) and Diploma Program (ages 16–19) (International Baccalaureate, 2017, p. 1).

I will explore how leadership sacralization relates to one of the three main IB research clusters identified in a recent systematic review: ‘The International Identity of the IB’ (Jaafar et al., 2021, p.15). This cluster includes the concept of international mindedness (IM) that can be understood as the IB’s vision of an ‘idealized learner/citizen/worker’ (Bunnell, 2021a, pp. 250–251) and influences all of its educational policies and programs (Hacking et al., 2018, p. 4). Others have characterized the concept as an economic-oriented Western neoliberal mind-set (Dvir et al., 2018, p. 460). Its contested meaning (Hacking et al., 2018, p. 7) arguably results from attempts to balance the ideological and pragmatic interests that exist in international education (Cambridge & Thompson, 2004, p. 164).

I aim to shed new light on IB education that moves the discussion beyond the commonly adopted Bourdieusian lens (Bunnell, 2019b, p. 165). This literature review and ontological analysis will adopt a Jungian lens to explore how IM could be considered an archetypal symbol that sacralizes leadership space. Archetypes can be understood as templates for potential interpretations of reality in the collective unconscious that are common in most of humanity (Jung, 2014a; Stevens, 2001).

I will expand on research that employed institutional theory (Scott, 2013) to explore how schools legitimize their claim to be international (Bunnell, 2019a; Bunnell et al., 2017). It could be argued that a central aspect of an IB school’s legitimacy is their ability to promote IM (Bunnell et al., 2020, p. 560). My hypothesis is that Elite Traditional IB schools could strengthen institutional legitimacy by adopting a Jungian archetypal approach to IM education that could sacralize leadership space.

Literature search process

I conducted multiple systematic literature searches based on my research focus on the Google Scholar (2022) search engine. My initial query was for the years 2018–2021 with various keywords associated with international mindedness. I selected the year 2018 as the starting point because this is when the OECD (i.e. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) introduced its global competency questionnaire (2018).

For my subsequent search, I inputted the words ‘archetypes Jung unconscious education leadership’ in the main field and also included the exact phrase ‘educational leadership’. This search was for words that occur in the body of the literature and from any time period. I rejected any results that did not address both one leadership-related word and one Jungian-related word. If I was uncertain about a title fitting these criteria, I would read the abstract to search for further evidence. Two of the sources fit these criteria but were rejected because one focused on creative writing practices, and another was a master’s thesis. I also rejected any studies that dealt primarily with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (The Myers & Briggs Foundation, 2020) that is influenced by Jung, but focuses on personality types and is therefore outside the scope of this paper that is less concerned with assigning a personality type to leaders. I intend to explore the transcendent experience of activating archetypes that sacralize leadership space.

My next query was an ‘all in title’ search from any time period for the words ‘leadership archetypes’. I searched through the titles of these results for any reference to a Jungian-related word and also searched the abstracts for any reference to the collective unconscious. The next query was for titles of literature from any time period that included the words ‘International Baccalaureate leadership’. I also tried variations of the word leadership (e.g. leader, director, principal). I selected literature that fit the criteria of focusing on the nature of leadership in the International Baccalaureate. After this, I conducted a search with the same settings for ‘sacred leadership’. I narrowed these down by rejecting articles about leadership in religious institutions and those that mentioned the metaphor but not the sacralization process. ‘Citations’ results on Google Scholar without any hyperlinks were rejected from my various queries.

I included additional recommendations from Mr. Michael Fertig (University of Bath, 2021a) and Dr. Tristan Bunnell (University of Bath, 2021b) about publications they either authored or were aware of that were related to institutional theory in International Baccalaureate educational institutions.

Further references included in this discussion are the result of my prior knowledge as well as various ad hoc searches on Google Scholar and the University of Bath library database during my initial exploration of possible research directions for this review. Furthermore, I used the snowballing method to identify relevant sources in the reference lists of the sources selected during this process. I grouped the overall results of this literature search under two thematic headings. Some references fit within more than one theme. There are 41 references that relate to ‘international mindedness through a Jungian lens’, and 33 are associated with ‘leadership sacralization and legitimacy in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools’. Having defined the literature search process, I will now turn to the general conceptual framework that will guide my understanding of this paper’s research aims.

General conceptual framework

This section will begin with discussing my paper’s understanding of the concept of sacralization. After that, I will draw parallels between Jungian archetypes concepts and existing international mindedness literature. I will then discuss institutional legitimacy.

Sacralization

Agamben and Fort (2007, p. 73) asserted that something becomes sacred when its meaning is no longer common and has been transferred to a separate dimension that is considered to be divine. Weber (1993, p. 68) defined the concept as the irrational belief in a magical charisma that can be associated with a person, animal or object. Shils (1982, p. 110) characterized this charisma as the belief in transcendent order-determining powers that warrant serious attention and respect. Eliade (1968, p. 63) defined the sacred as an ontological transition from one motive of being to another. A religious person can be understood as continually remaking themselves in a cyclical process, heading toward a divine model or ideal (Eliade, 1968, p. 100). These recurring gestures and rituals are considered necessary to re-sacralize the world (Eliade, 1968, p. 99).

Leadership re-sacralization can also be imagined as a cyclical process within secular organizations (see Leadership sacralization section). My understanding of the concept of sacralization is influenced by McDowell’s (2001, p. 649) suggestion that a Jungian archetypal perspective could offer a new interpretation of sacred experiences as archetypal imagery often can seem charged, mysterious and highlighted like the halo in a religious painting.

Jungian archetypal theory

Archetypes can be considered templates for potential interpretations of reality that are thought to be common in most of humanity (Jung, 2014a, Stevens, 2001). Jung (2014a, loc 241) defined archetypes as existing within the collective unconscious that can be understood as a psychic layer of the self. He (2014b, p. 185) characterized the unconscious as a self-contained world that interacts with and affects our experience of the outer world. He (2014b, p. 190) further compared it to the philosophical or religious conception of the soul that in psychological terms can be defined as a ‘semiconscious psychic complex, having partial autonomy of function’. The idea of the independence of the unconscious radically distinguished his ideas from Freud’s (1923, p. 123) and could additionally explain why academia has largely ignored his theories.

Mayes (2020, p. 14) pointed out that another general criticism of Jung is the argument that if archetypes cannot be measured by what has been determined to be an appropriate tool, they do not exist. McGowan concluded that Jung’s archetypes theory was unscientific (1994, p. 84) due to the fact that images in metaphors could only originate from unique life experiences (1994, p. 183). Jung (2014c, p. 203) explained that the critics who likened his theories to ‘mysticism’ were acting out of fear of the potential collapse of their scientific and moral belief system. For Jung (2014c, p. 217), ‘the real is what works’ and the unconscious can arguably influence human behavior.

Carr (2002, p. 477) blamed academia’s rejection of Jung on Freud’s followers who apparently spread critical ideas about Jung after he ended his professional relationship with Freud. Mayes (2020, p. 13) attributed academia’s reluctance to adopt Jung’s theories to the complexity of the archetype, and the fact that there is no single agreed upon theory. He further argued that this could be the most difficult concept in all of psychology (Mayes, 2020, p. 14).

Several definitions of archetypes have been proposed in existing literature. Carr (2002, p. 479) likened the concept to Plato’s (Jowett, 1875, p. 397) ideal or elemental forms, except in this case the categories are of the imagination. Stevens (2001, p. 50) considered them to be innate unrealized potential that seek to be activated by experiences. He pointed out that other animals arguably experience this innate or instinctual knowledge, but humans have been able to break out of this unconscious existence by creating a conscious personality that is projected from the depths of this collective psychic layer (Stevens, 2001, p. 43).

Knox (2003, p. 93) rejected the conception of innate imagery in the human mind as there are not enough genes in the human genome to account for pre-programed knowledge (Knox, 2003, p. 200). She supported McDowell’s (2001, p. 643) suggestion that the archetypal process is guided by mathematical principles for the relationship between objects (e.g. division) that could be understood as inherent rather that inherited, much like the Pythagorean theorem applies to all right triangles, regardless of the material. McDowell (2001, p. 648) argued that the simplicity of a mathematical principle of organization is part of its power, and that this is evident in politics where simple ideas can organize groups. He further suggested that the story of Alexander cutting (i.e. dividing) the Gordian knot with his sword could be understood as a simple and compelling solution to a complex problem. He (McDowell, 2001, p. 649) compared the archetype without content (i.e. archetype-as-such) to a psychological vortex that draws us in to suggest a variety of images that provide meaning. Knox (2003, p. 204) likened the archetype-as-such to the cognitive science conception of image schemas (i.e. organized units of knowledge) that can serve as an invisible scaffolding for a range of metaphorical extensions (Knox, 2003, p. 60).

Archetypes could additionally be compared to Kant’s (2016, p. 9) concept of ‘a priori’ knowledge that can be understood as conceptions formed by inherent laws of understanding that determine how we experience the world (e.g. time and space). Mayes (2005, p. 174) imagined them as a rhizome (i.e. horizontal underground stem) under a field that blooms a variety of images. His (2020, p. 129) Archetypal Pedagogy theory is concerned with the relationship between ‘signs’ and ‘symbols’. The signs (i.e. specific classifications) must serve the symbols (i.e. representations of something else) and never the other way around (Mayes, 2020, p. 170) because a symbol’s ambiguity can open up new possibilities (Mayes, 2020, p. 146). They can be imagined as ‘pulsing mysteries’ that are paradoxical, with categories that are always changing and open to personal meaning/interpretation (Mayes, 2005, p. 64). The ‘facts’ and ‘models’ that emerge can be understood as abstractions of one’s specific illusions (Mayes, 2020, p. 152) and any overemphasis on these signs in an educational context could arguably lead to a culture of apathy and resentment (Mayes, 2020, p. 177).

Stevens (2005, loc 87) described a living entity in the collective unconscious that he referred to as the archaic or two-million-year-old self. This ancient human within us is thought to be at home in the environment and social systems of our distant ancestors and reacts to experiences by activating archetypes to create powerful symbols (Stevens, 2005, loc 332). Modern society could be understood as failing to fulfill the needs of this archaic self, resulting in obsessions with technology and materialism that only serve to create a desert within individuals that is void of spiritual vitality (Stevens, 2005, loc 1290).

For Jungians, education that overly emphasizes technical proficiency or abstract intellectualism becomes a detriment to both students and society (Mayes, 2005, p. 175). Mayes’ Archetypal Pedagogy is based on the following understanding of the concept.

An Archetype goes well beyond merely academic, discursive categories of description and analysis. It has to do with more fundamental poetic capacities to ‘imagine’ realities that transcend the observable and measurable. And it is open-ended, dynamic, and creative because it is about ‘possibilities’. (Mayes, 2020, p. 258)

The poetic way of knowing that goes beyond the empirically observable and measurable can thus be understood as gaining access to the archetype to manifest new realities. The empirical facts and signs matter greatly but must matter secondarily to the symbol (Mayes, 2020, p. 177). Jung (2012, p. 190) argued that despite the multitude of potential symbolic manifestations, the archetype’s power over us remains the same. I will now move on to draw comparisons to the international mindedness (IM) journey in International Baccalaureate (IB) education.

International mindedness through a Jungian lens

This section will draw comparisons between Jungian theories and IB IM education. IM is an under researched concept (Bunnell et al., 2020, p. 3) with little consensus about what it actually means (Hacking et al., 2018, p. 7). Bunnell (2019a, pp. 188–190) characterized it as a complex, potentially unachievable practice that can be described as a mind-set or journey.

Existing literature offers a variety of interpretations of what the key attributes of the concept could be. Harshman and Augustine’s (2013, p. 454) study that involved asynchronous online discussions between 126 IB teachers in more than 30 countries identified the key aspect as ‘authentic openness’ to a complex and uncertain nature of truth. Metli and Lane (2020, p. 216) found that agency was a significant attribute that has been overlooked in existing literature. They (2020, p. 215) further agreed with Singh and Qi’s (2013) that intercultural competence and global engagement were important aspects of the concept but disagreed that multilingualism should be considered central because they found that it has a more supportive role. Belal’s (2017, p. 30) mixed methods case study within one school indicated that international diversity within the school community was the most important variable according to students, teachers, administrators and alumni. A similar conclusion was reached during a study that asked students and teachers to rank five attributes of intercultural understanding (Hill, 2006, p. 14).

It is significant to note that international diversity within the school is a defining characteristic of the ‘Elite Traditional’ schools that are the focus of my paper (Bunnell, 2021a, p. 253). I am reminded of Mayes’ (2020, p. 172) ‘Holistic Multicultural Education’ theory that involves both celebrating diversity, while also acknowledging timeless archetypal truths. It could thus be understood as both culturally conservative and progressive (Mayes, 2005, p. 115) as it encourages cultural criticism as well as preservation (Mayes, 2005, p. 117). Tate (2013, p. 256) similarly characterized IB education as progressive without explicitly having a connection to progressive pedagogies. Future researchers could approach the knowledge gap in our understanding of IM education by adopting Haywood’s (2021) five observer lenses (i.e. educator, humanitarian, investor, consumer, political sociologist) that can be used to explore the nature of international education. The specific values and attitudes might change depending on the observer, however I would suggest that a common archetypal theme could emerge. IM arguably has an archetypal source and thus can be considered universal.

Several scholars have pointed out the universal nature of the IB philosophy. Gellar (2003, p. 27) characterized it as an attempt to promote universal values. Tate (2013, p. 260) similarly argued that the IB Learner Profile (LP) (2020a) attributes that embody IM (i.e. Inquirers, Knowledgeable, Thinkers, Communicators, Principled, Open-minded, Caring, Risk-takers, Balanced, Reflective) could represent an ideal of virtue that is meant to be applicable to all of humanity and that this attempt to develop a universal education system remains a unique occurrence in history. The IB Theory of Knowledge course that is a requirement of the Diploma Program challenges students to consider the power and limitations of the IB LP by reflecting on where their values come from and how interactions with others shape their knowledge (International Baccalaureate, 2020b, p. 13). The subject guide (International Baccalaureate, 2020b, p. 7) defined IM as an ‘openness to the world and a recognition of our deep interconnectedness to others’.

The IB mission aims to reveal a deep connection between all of humanity and challenges learners to strive toward a better and more peaceful world (International Baccalaureate, 2019, p. 3), while arguably providing a sense of membership within an imaginary global society (Dvir et al., 2018, p. 469). Tate (2013, p. 255) asserted that the moral intent of the IB LP could be hidden inside descriptive wrappings that give the appearance of describing what effective learners do. Furthermore, this philosophy could be interpreted as the embodiment of the key ideals of enlightenment, without explicitly proposing that there is a purpose to human history, or that a universal civilization should take precedence over national allegiances (Tate, 2013, p. 259). Ian Hill (2012, p. 252), the former Deputy Director General of the IB, similarly characterized the concept as part of humanity’s search for a universal ideal of international education that dates back to antiquity.

For Jung (1981, p. 172), ideals can be considered signposts that help us strive toward the unthinkable. I would additionally suggest that the IB could be informed by a Jungian perspective on the process of value acquisition.

Values are matters of the heart and soul. To find them, there are no theorems; to live them out in the complexity of human experience, there are no simple algorithms (or complex algorithms either, for that matter). No equations identify or guarantee them. We arrive at them, know them, embrace them, express them, and live them as compassionately, gracefully, and honestly as we can, not through the rigid information imposed on us by signs but by virtue of the wisdom we discover through symbols. (Mayes, 2020, p. 170)

The ambiguity of symbols rather than the rigidity of signs can thus be understood as facilitating the affective process of value development. Mayes (2020, p. 170) argued that the signs could provide stabilizing traditions/structures that serve the larger symbol. The social reality would be organically forming and expanding according to multifaceted interpretations of individuals who are encouraged to seek out the maximum amount of associations and implications, and additionally speak truth to power (Mayes, 2020, p. 177). He suggested that the following Jungian symbols could be associated with education.

The classroom as a temenos, the teacher as the wise elder and the student as the hero or heroine of a heroic quest, knowledge as a philosopher’s stone, and getting knowledge as an alchemical process or an odyssey through a dark forest of adventure. (Mayes, 2020, p. 178)

A school could thus be considered a sacred space where an archetypal symbolic journey of values-development occurs. The IB mission can arguably awaken a deeper meaning and purpose in the school that could be likened to a secular religious experience (see Leadership sacralization section). Cambridge and Thompson (2004, p. 163) similarly characterized IM education as personal development that is affective rather than cognitive. Bunnell (2021a, p. 257) theorized the role of rituals such as festivals in providing a sense of excitement and importance that leads to the transmission of values in international schools. He further suggested that the concept could transmit an idealized way of behaving (Bunnell, 2021a, p. 264) that leads to an initiation into an imaginary international community (Bunnell et al., 2020, pp. 12–13). Bunnell et al. (2020, p. 3) asserted that IM could act as a ‘potential binding force’ that unites young people with a shared sense of global responsibility. Haywood (2002, p. 153) suggested that the promotion of IM likely requires visionary leadership, rather than management. My paper’s central argument suggests that IB educational leaders could be imagined as answering the call to lead humanity toward a universal symbol of educational values. I will now move on to draw comparisons to Jung’s individuation concept.

Individuation

Both IM and individuation could be considered transformative journeys of self-improvement. The IB CAS (i.e. Creativity, Activity, Service) project which Hayden and McIntosh (2018, p. 404) described as a ‘transformative process of holistic personal development’ could be characterized as the IB student’s individuation process. Mayes defined his Jungian pedagogic theory as ‘education for individuation’ (2020, p. 123) that challenges teachers and learners to connect to archetypal unconscious depths that can be ‘ethically viable and emotionally sustaining’ (Mayes, 2020, p. 144). He (2020, p. 171) recommended that schools introduce subjectivity ‘safe spaces’ where the individuals can resolve dialectical tensions.

Jung (1981, p. 168) recommended that teachers focus on becoming creative independent individuals who resist transforming into ‘walking personifications of method’. It is thus important for teachers to exemplify the development of a unique self (i.e. personality) that is not easily influenced by others. I would suggest that this quality could prove to be one of the most significant determinants of an individual’s ability to maintain IM throughout their adult lives.

Mayes (2020, p. 123) noted that the search for wholeness (Jung, 2009, p. 197) associated with individuation is not meant to be perfection, but rather a process of acknowledging imperfections within the self. For Jung (2014b, p. 224), ‘there is no light without shadow and no psychic wholeness without imperfection’. I am reminded of Wells’ (2011, p. 176) similar characterization of the IB LP as not representing the profile of the perfect student, but rather a ‘map of a lifelong journey’. Mayes (2005, p. 118) asserted that people who acknowledge their shadow archetype will develop more understanding and compassion for others. He (2020, p. 6) described archetypes as a coin with two sides that are always opposite (e.g. light and dark sides of human experience). Samuels (1986, p. 26) explained the shadow archetype as being difficult to accept because it contains our fears and what we despise about ourselves.

Jung (2014c, p. 223) defined the Transcendent Function that is at the heart of the individuation process as the union of opposites that occurs within the mind during personality growth. Miller (2004, loc 189) characterized it as a metaphoric field or third area between ourselves and whatever or whoever we are interacting with that leads to the emergence of new attitudes and perspectives. Knox (2003, p. 162) described the concept as the ability to tolerate alternative beliefs within ourselves and other people. She (2003, p. 186) compared the key moments of psychological growth in the individuation process to the concept of ‘now moments’ (Stern et al., 1998) that serve as crucial new experiences that lead to change in beliefs and behavior.

Maslow (2012, p. 190) estimated that less than 1% of the adult population become what he termed Self-Actualizing individuals but noted that everyone can experience temporary self-actualizing peak experiences in life (2012, p. 91). It can be reasonably maintained that this characterization could be applicable to both individuation and IM. It would be noteworthy to discover how Elite Traditional IB school community members can experience peak levels of these concepts. An empirical study in this area could shed light on my hypothesis about how leadership sacralization could strengthen institutional legitimacy.

Institutional legitimacy

The process of becoming a credible, accepted institution requires institutional legitimacy (Scott, 2013, p. 71). It is arguably what distinguishes institutions from organizations (Bunnell et al., 2016, p. 415) and is additionally connected to the legitimacy of a leader’s power. Those who wield power are motivated to legitimize their use of this power (Scott, 2013, p. 58).

My paper argues that the sacralization of the leadership space contributes to this legitimacy. I am building on Bunnell et al. (2017, p. 309) research that applied Scott’s institutional theory (2013) to explore how international schools support their claims to be international. Bunnell et al. (2020, p. 560) argued that for Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools, this involves legitimizing their claim to promote international mindedness. I will now go on to explore Scott’s institutional theory in the following three sections: pillars, carriers and limitations.

Pillars

Scott (2013, pp. 56–58) defined institutions as systems of control that can empower individuals and provide stability and meaning. He (2013, p. 59) identified three systems that are the ‘vital ingredients of institutions’: the regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive. These pillars that support institutionalization can be represented on a continuum with the conscious level at one end (i.e. regulative rules) and the unconscious at the other (i.e. cultural-cognitive) (Scott, 2013 pp. 83–84). The cultural-cognitive pillar is the collective social reality (Scott, 2013 p. 76) that provides meaning in the form of symbols and language (Scott, 2013 p. 67). Normative systems provide values and standards that prescribe expected behavior and roles (Scott, 2013 pp. 64–65). The regulative system contains rules that support the primary task (i.e. reason for existence) of an institution and are unconsciously followed and understood through cognitive and normative means (Scott, 2013 p. 63). Bunnell et al. (2017, p. 308) characterized the adoption of this collective ‘sense-making schema’ as becoming institutionalized.

Carriers

Carriers are symbolic systems (e.g. rules/laws, values), relational systems (e.g. power systems), artifacts (e.g. objects with value) and activities (e.g. monitoring) that are edited and assigned meaning within the three pillars mentioned previously (Scott, 2013, pp. 95–96). These mechanisms allow us to describe ideas moving through space and time that can be transformed by the journey they take (Scott, 2013 p. 95). As ideas and artifacts move, they can be altered or combined with other ideas or objects (Scott, 2013 p. 96). Scott’s framework does not account for all complexities, but rather focuses on what becomes more permanent or ‘sticky’ in the institutionalization process (Scott, 2013 p. 97).

Limitations

In my opinion, this theory’s main weakness is the visual metaphor. Scott recognized that it could be interpreted as deemphasizing the connections between the pillars and welcomed future theories that stress communication between them (2013 p. 84). He explained that his decision to keep them separate was to allow for analysis of their differing assumptions about social reality and legitimacy (2013 pp. 83–84). I will now move on to introduce a new conceptual framework that both maintains this separation while improving the representation of the connections. It further builds on Scott’s institutional theory by integrating sacralization and Jungian archetypes concepts.

Leadership re-sacralization framework

The Leadership re-sacralization framework (see Figure 1) incorporates concepts explored in the general conceptual framework section to support my paper’s review and ontological analysis. It could further be used by researchers, educators and leaders as a tool for analyzing the archetypal nature of the leadership sacralization process within an institution. This section will describe the relationship between the main elements of the framework: the pillars of institutions (see Institutional legitimacy section), archetypes (see Jungian archetypal theory section) and leadership re-sacralization (see Leadership sacralization section).

Figure 1. Leadership re-sacralization framework. Adapted from ‘Archetypes’ theory (Jung, 2014a, loc 241); ‘the three pillars of institutions’ framework (Scott, 2013, p. 59); ‘Lorenz attractor’ mathematical pattern (Lorenz, 1963, p. 137). The conception of leadership sacralization as a continuous process (Worley, 2019, pp. 600–601). Created by the author in Google Drawings.

Figure 1 displays the journey of an institution’s leadership space as a cyclical process of re-sacralization. The circle can be understood as an institution’s leadership space where the three pillars of institutions (i.e. regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive systems) are represented by circles with dotted lines to indicate that they can be imagined separately or in communication with one another. This leadership space circle is depicted like a pendulum swinging back and forth in a three-dimensional figure eight pattern. The center circle can be understood as instances of little or no sense of leadership sacralization, while the upward swings on either side indicate periods of re-sacralization. The pendulum’s path over time is represented by the infinity-shape at the top of the diagram. This shape is influenced by Lorenz’s (1963, p. 137) attractor mathematical pattern that is commonly referred to as the ‘butterfly effect’ and represents how complex systems such as weather exhibit a common pattern whose behavior is highly sensitive to slight changes.

During the re-sacralization phases of my paper’s conceptual framework, the pendulum’s path orbits an empty space that can be considered an invisible mathematical relationship (i.e. archetype). These archetypes symbolize a psychological vortex that draws us in to scaffold a variety of images/personal representations that provide meaning.

The Leadership re-sacralization framework can thus be understood as representing how an individual’s personal meaning-making journey within the pillars/systems of an institution’s leadership space could be scaffolded/embedded within an archetypal structure that can influence the cyclical process of re-sacralization. I will now present my central argument for how leadership space could be re-sacralized in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools.

Central argument

Overall, my study strengthens the idea that a Jungian archetypal approach to international mindedness (IM) education could sacralize leadership space in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate (IB) schools. Figure 2 presents my central argument about how leadership re-sacralization could be understood in these schools according to the findings discussed primarily in the following sections of my paper: Institutional legitimacy, Jungian archetypal theory and Leadership sacralization.

Figure 2. Leadership space re-sacralization in Elite Traditional IB schools. Adapted from findings discussed primarily in the following sections of my paper: institutional legitimacy, Jungian archetypal theory and leadership sacralization.

I will now discuss how the process of leadership re-sacralization could be understood in Elite Traditional IB schools (see Figure 2). The concept of the sacred can be considered a socially constructed concept within which sensemaking, group cohesion and identity can occur. While leaders could be considered the most important factor in the creation of an ethos, it can be reasonably maintained that the beliefs of the rest of the members of the institution determine the perception of the sacralization of leadership space in these schools. Solidarity between IM ‘global community’ members is strengthened by the fact that it can be easier to feel something in common with people who you do not know intimately.

The IM concept’s multifaceted nature can be understood as more than simply a practical method for adapting to a variety of contexts around the world. It can be considered an archetypal symbol of a journey toward wholeness/individuation. From a Jungian pedagogic perspective, the signs (i.e. specific classifications) must serve the symbols (i.e. representations of something else), as any overemphasis on these signs could arguably lead to a culture of apathy and resentment that inhibits leadership sacralization.

This archetypal approach to IM could additionally strengthen the legitimacy of the concept and thus the legitimacy of the institution. The IB Learner Profile (i.e. IM identity) could be characterized as a map of ideal behaviors for members of the community. Roles develop from sensemaking in the cultural-cognitive system. They are then prescribed in the normative and further defined by rules in the regulative system.

In the Leadership sacralization section, I will discuss the fact that IB leaders could be understood as sacrificing their personal identity and goals to align with the organizational ideal. They could be imagined as priest-like artists who form an aesthetically rich narrative that provides a deep sense of a sacred mission. When considering the distance between leaders and other community members that maintains the ‘mystique’ of leadership, I am reminded of the ‘division’ mathematical relationship (i.e. archetype).

The leadership role could additionally involve darker behaviors (e.g. silencing) that would contribute to leadership sacralization despite potentially inhibiting the success of other approaches such as the promotion of subjectivity ‘safe spaces’ where members are encouraged to speak truth to power. Leadership sacralization could thus be considered a delicate balancing act. Future empirical studies could shed light on how applicable the characteristics identified in Figure 2 are to the lived experiences in Elite Traditional IB schools. The next section will discuss my literature search findings related to leadership in these schools.

Leadership in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools

This section will present the findings from my literature review about leadership sacralization in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate (IB) schools. I aim to identify gaps and provide analysis to inform future research. Leadership in IB schools is both an under researched (Gardner McTaggart, 2019a, p. 768) and under theorized area (Bunnell, 2018, p. 552). Bunnell (2021b, p. 562) pointed out that historically, research into leadership in international schools has been mostly negative by focusing on problems, challenges and obstacles. He (2021b, p. 566) called for moving the academic discussion beyond the established quick turnover rate of international school heads, toward an investigation into how these leaders tend to demonstrate a resilience that allows them to continue working in these types of schools. This resilience could be attributed to this paper’s central hypothesis about how an archetypal symbolic approach could sacralize leadership space. Perhaps, these leaders could view setbacks as part of their psychological growth that could arguably be associated with the international mindedness (IM) journey (see International mindedness through a Jungian lens section).

Riesebrodt (1999, p. 10) asserted that a leader’s magical charisma (see Sacralization section) is not based on their personal understanding, but rather on the beliefs of the other members of the community. An IB school leader’s ability to operate in this space would thus be dependent on the other members’ beliefs about the IM archetypal symbol. From this perspective, leaders would not be required to personally invest in the IM mind-set, only to develop resilience based on the cycle of leadership re-sacralization in these schools.

Gardner McTaggart (2018, 2019a, 2019b) conducted interviews and observations during a recent case study that involved six senior leaders in Western European IB institutions over a two-year period. Overall, the researcher found no ‘cohesive phenomenon’ of IB leadership, as well as very little evidence that the IB Learner Profile (International Baccalaureate, 2020a) character traits were being followed by the leaders in this study (Gardner McTaggart, 2019a, p. 770) despite explicit recommendations to do so from the IB (2021b, para 8). This could be concerning when considering the fact that the IB Leader Profile embodies the IM concept that is arguably central to the IB institutionalization process (see Institutional legitimacy section). My paper aims to provide a conceptual framework and hypothesis that could guide future studies in this under researched area. A central aspect of my hypothesis involves the leadership sacralization process.

Leadership sacralization

This paper addresses the theoretical gap in the understanding of the role of rituals in Elite Traditional international schools (Bunnell, 2021a, p. 264) by focusing on IB leadership sacralization. The leadership journey can be attributed to progress which has deep roots in religion. Mullen et al. (2014, p. 56) asserted that there is a delicate line between mythology and religion as both can be thought of as living mythologies that provide meaning to human life. Righetti’s (2014) literature review of leadership studies between 2000 and 2012 revealed the role of the sacred in relation to power not being limited to a religious institution context. I am reminded of Weber’s (2001, pp. 124–125) description of the influence of Protestant Christianity on modern organizations. Morley (2008, p. 58) pointed out in a business journal article that the magic or spiritual element that draws others to leaders is seldom discussed in leadership literature.

Ashforth & Vaidyanath (2002, p. 364) described normative control in organizations as the creation of a cosmology with myths, mission statements, rituals and shared history that result in a secular religion that provides meaning and purposeful participation. They further pointed out that we sacralize social institutions to make them worthy of our participation (2002, p. 365), and that members of these secular religions develop normative controls that connect the individual to a larger sense of purpose or even transcendence that affects their identity and individuality (Ashforth & Vaidyanath, 2002, p. 368). Hatch et al. (2006, p. 58) drew parallels between the meaning transmitted by chief executive officer (CEO) storytelling and evangelical morality plays. Both were found to provoke empathy and awaken aesthetic consciousness (i.e. being sensitive to beauty and ethical responsibility) (Hatch et al., 2006, p. 55). Dey and Mason (2018, p. 96) similarly found that a leader’s ‘disruptive truth-telling’ can be justified as an attempt to expand the imagination of organization members to break free of orthodox social structures and believe in new possible futures. In other words, myths can establish the world (Mullen et al., 2014, p. 54). Considering Haywood’s (2002, p. 150) claim that international school leaders are the most important factor in the creation of an ethos, it is worth investigating what role the IB philosophy plays in this process.

It is important to recognize White’s (2012, p. 196) assertion that on its surface the IB can be described as a secular humanist organization that seems to be ambivalent toward religion and approaches the topic with a detached secular mind-set. That said, this paper’s central argument rests on the premise that a sacred archetypal experience (see Jungian archetypal theory section) is also possible in the IB school leadership space without any connection to a traditional religious experience.

Grint (2010) offered the first serious discussion of the sacralization of leadership as a new theoretical perspective rather than just a metaphor (Worley, 2019, p. 591). Worley (2019, p. 595) characterized Grint’s conception as a macro-mechanism or space in which sensemaking and group cohesion can occur. Worley (2019 p. 598) pointed out that organizations where the belief in sacralization of leadership is high appear to function well for virtually everyone by enabling organizational sensemaking and group cohesion. He characterized leadership sacralization as follows.

The sacred pertains to leadership rather than individual leaders. It is a collective phenomenon which frames the relationship between leaders and followers. The sacred enables groups to hold tension with the distinction between roles, rights, responsibilities, and rewards. It is a mutually constructed system that aligns activities and motivations and does so through the moral compulsion and genuine respect it imbues in the individual. The sacred is a socially constructed concept that must be continually and mutually enacted by both followers and leaders. (Worley, 2019 p. 595)

Worley (2019, pp. 600–601) argued that the sacred allows for the preservation of the category of ‘leadership’ in an organization in a continuous process of reestablishment. Grint (2010, p. 92) identified three aspects of the sacralization process: the sacrifice of leaders and other members of an organization, the distance or separation between leaders and the other members that maintains the ‘mystique’ (Grint, 2010 p. 94), and the silencing of any resistance from ‘heretics’ or anxieties about the mission or system of leadership (Grint, 2010 p.92). I will now proceed to explore these three characteristics.

Sacrifice

Leadership can be understood as an archetypal experience of becoming (Mullen et al., 2014, p. 18) that brings meaning and purpose (Morley, 2008, p. 62) where leaders sacrifice personal goals to commit the institution to a sacred mission (Grint, 2010, p. 97). The leadership archetype can be symbolized as the sacrificial hero (Jung, 2012, p. 141) or wounded leader who uses their emotional pain to mold their identity and succeed (Mullen et al., 2014, p. 15).

According to Grint (2010, p. 91), corporate leadership can be compared to a priesthood that makes sacrifices to sacralize the space it operates in. Hatch et al. (2006, p. 50) similarly described the priest role as mediating the chaos and encouraging the members of the organization to keep the faith toward an unknowable future. Leaders were found to have priest-like responsibilities to guide the rituals of the organization (Hatch et al., 2006 p. 56).

Grint (2000, loc 260) argued that the construction of a myth that ‘conjures up a preferred future’ is the most important element of leadership. Others have similarly observed that leaders and other members of the organization have faith in an undefined better future (Mullen et al., 2014; Śliwa et al. 2013). If faith requires totems (Ashforth & Vaidyanath, 2002, p. 365), it is pertinent to interrogate whether leadership requires sacred symbols.

Ruth (2014) warned that the corporate workplace’s flawed organization and the lack of protections for individuals makes it the wrong space for addressing spiritual issues. In a similar vein, Spoelstra (2017) recommended that leadership studies treat any connections to religion as metaphors, rather than religious phenomena. Ashforth and Vaidyanath (2002, pp. 365–366) asserted that members of the organization could experience it in a religious way without the need for a supernatural being or power.

My paper’s central argument rests on the assumption that individuals assign a pattern of meaning to the concept of the sacred as they strive toward an organizational ideal. The organizational ideal is similar to the primary task (see Institutional legitimacy section) and could offer an explanation for a school’s cohesion and collective identity. This concept was investigated during a ten-year-long case study about teachers who became educational leaders in Australian public schools. Carr (2002, p. 482) described it as the school replacing an individual’s ego ideal with an organizational ideal that defines normative roles that employees are expected to adopt. Freud (1923, p. 12) defined the ego ideal as the perfect ideal that individuals are working toward. This is similar to the Jungian concept of mirroring where throughout life ‘individuals search for confirmation of their self-identity from authority figures or other parent-like relationships’ (Carr, 2002, p. 480). I am further reminded of Worley’s (2019, p. 600) definition of the ‘organizational imagination’ as representing how the sacred maintains an organization’s sensemaking, cohesion and identity. He (2019, p. 599) additionally suggested that Grint’s characterization of sacrifice should be considered a lesser function that sets the sacralization process in motion.

Carr (2002, p. 482) pointed out that in Western cultures an individual’s identity can be viewed in terms of their employment status and this can be used to motivate them to adopt particular behaviors and attitudes. The former teachers who became leaders had adapted their personality to fit the new ideal and were torn between their former teacher values and the new efficiency-focused values. This led to anxiety and depression. They additionally experienced resentment when they retired because they felt discarded by the school that had provided a sense of belonging and meaning in their lives (Carr, 2002, p. 484). This study raises questions about the role of a leader’s personal beliefs and values in the leadership sacralization process. It remains to be determined how adopting efficiency-focused values affect an IB school leader’s sense of belonging to the IM journey. Another aspect that maintains the sacrality of the leadership space is distance.

Distance

In addition to maintaining the ‘mystique’ (Grint, 2010, p. 94) of the leadership space, distance can provide a practical method of avoiding the anxiety of responsibility when mistakes are made by assigning a scapegoat to carry the blame (Grint, 2010 p. 97). Śliwa et al. (2013, p. 862) pointed out that leadership studies also thrive on the production of sacred spaces that distance them from management theories. The distance between theory and practice can allow scholars to respond to any criticism of a particular application of a theory by claiming it is not representative of the authentic form (Śliwa et al., 2013, p. 861).

Grint (2010, p. 103) attributed the rise in popularity of distributed leadership as an attempt to escape the heroic conception of traditional leadership structures but warned that any removal of the sacred ‘room’ that leadership operates in could make decision-making impossible. He (2010, p. 90) hypothesized that distributed leadership is difficult to attain because leadership only works within a space that is sacred. Worley (2019, pp. 599–600) similarly concluded that distributed leadership works better in the short term because systems of leadership must be continuously sacralized which is arguably easier in more traditional models. Nichols (2010, p. 34) suggested that the IB organization’s recommendation of a distributed leadership model is an attempt to account for the frequent turnaround of staff in international schools. I would suggest that this frequent turnaround could provide a regular source of leadership re-sacralization that allows distributed models to thrive.

Grint (2000, loc 113) claimed that imaginary communities have significantly stronger bonds because it may be easier to feel something in common with people who you do not know intimately. The symbolic element could become more significant when there are greater differences between members (Grint, 2000, loc 217). In a similar vein, Bunnell (2021a, p. 263) suggested that rituals in international schools lead to a ‘social solidarity’ between students who have not directly interacted with one another. The distance inherent in membership to a global community could thus contribute to IB leadership sacralization. Ashforth and Vaidyanath (2002, p. 367) advised that secular religions be approached by participants with an ‘ironic distance’ because membership is not lifelong and can thus create difficulties when leaving or retiring. Bunnell (2021a, p. 261) similarly suggested that international school students could also experience depression or shame after losing a connection to the school rituals. Another negative aspect of the secular religious experience could be the fact that any experimentation or change has the tendency to be considered almost sacrilegious (Ashforth & Vaidyanath, 2002, pp. 366–367). This can lead to the last of Grint’s sacred leadership characteristics: silencing.

Silencing

Grint (2010, p. 92) claimed that leadership sacralization requires the silencing of any resistance to the mission or structure. Abramson and Senyshyn (2009, p. 375) pointed out that there is very little discussion in educational leadership literature about the positive effects of punishment. The concept can be seen as not only maintaining an organizational order but also as providing the ‘wrong doer’ with the ability to forgive themselves and re-integrate successfully into society (Abramson & Senyshyn, 2009, p. 379). Carr (2002, p. 486) suggested that this practice can help an organization achieve its ideals, but there can be a shadow or dark side to this leadership practice. Mullen et al. (2014, p. 62) argued that this can seriously impact culture and lead to sociopathic attitudes or fetishistic engagement with statistics or other pathological behaviors.

Burke and Stashevsky (2006, p. 91) reported in a literature review that as much as 50–75% of organization leaders were considered to be ineffective. Some themes that emerged associated with failure included inability to develop effective interpersonal relationships, fear of taking risks, emotional instability and distrust (Burke & Stashevsky, 2006, p. 97). Hatch et al. (2006, p. 65) warned of dire consequences for the organizations and society as a whole in a study of CEOs during the 1990s in the United States. Carr (2002, p. 487) suggested that just as workplace safety is monitored by an outside organization, perhaps psychological audits of leadership should be more commonplace to create a psychologically safe environment for employees. He (2002, p. 487) further explained how CEOs can experience a combination of a midlife crisis and early life neglect that can lead to insecurity, vulnerability and pathological narcissism.

Śliwa et al. (2013, p. 874) similarly argued that a leader’s self-sacrifice and drive to lead could be a compensation for a deep-seated personal weakness or vulnerability. Are particularly emotionally vulnerable or flawed individuals often drawn to leadership positions? This could offer one potential explanation for why some international school teachers were compelled to post negative comments about school leadership on social media (Bunnell, 2018, p. 562). I would like to see future research studies explore how the dark side of leadership affects the sacralization of leadership space in these schools. I will now move on to discuss the limitations of my paper.

Limitations

A number of limitations need to be noted, regarding this paper. My conceptual framework posits that collectively experienced archetypes exist in the human unconscious. Major drawbacks associated with this delimitation include the inability to directly access archetypes and academic psychology’s reluctance to adopt these Jungian concepts. My hypothesis assumes that leadership can only occur in a sacred space that inhabits the overlapping space between the physical world and our imagination. Furthermore, my central argument may not be applicable to all types of International Baccalaureate (IB) schools. I additionally acknowledge that there could be other explanations for these findings that do not involve Jungian archetypes or leadership sacralization.

Another limitation of my paper is that my hypothesis rests on the assumption that universal educational values could exist. A potential source of bias in this paper is the influence of my personal experiences as both a student and educator in Elite Traditional IB schools, and additionally my Western cultural heritage. When considering the amount of time I have invested in these types of schools, it could be argued that it is challenging for me to recognize any evidence that diminishes my preconceived notions about them. The majority of researchers in this area are working practitioners like myself (Dolby & Rahman, 2008, p. 693) who could share a similar ‘status quo bias’. I would therefore welcome researchers from non-education backgrounds to contribute their unique perspectives or ‘truths’ to this research area. In spite of these shortfalls, my paper has many strengths. It sheds new light on IB education that moves the discussion beyond the commonly adopted Bourdieusian lens (Bunnell, 2019b, p. 165) to lay the groundwork for future research.

Next steps

My findings clearly indicate that there are gaps in our understanding when it comes to this paper’s research focus. It is regrettable that there are limited studies in the area of leadership sacralization. Much of the small body of relevant literature focused on a corporate rather than the educational context. Furthermore, this is the first paper to introduce a Jungian lens to this area of study. The understanding gained here should help to establish sacralization as a significant concept in future educational leadership research. My paper’s Leadership Re-sacralization framework could be further developed or applied to a variety of contexts.

My findings raise important questions that need further investigation. Future studies could address what contributes to the leadership re-sacralization process in Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate (IB) schools. My paper’s central argument offers a variety of variables that could contribute to the re-sacralization process. I would be particularly interested in studies that address the role of a leader’s personal beliefs and values, silencing, international diversity or the distributed leadership structure. These studies could further contribute to the development of methods that measure leadership sacralization changes across time and space within these schools.

Another key area for future study could be the development of research methods that aim to indirectly access the archetypal experience to better understand the underlying mechanisms at work in international value education. Researchers could potentially investigate how Knox’s conception of ‘Now moments’ in the individuation process or Maslow’s similar ‘peak experiences’ of Self-Actualization concept can impact the archetypal aspects of education in these schools. The frequency and context of these experiences could provide insight into how and when the signs (i.e. classifications) can either discourage or serve the archetypal symbol.

Further research is additionally required to examine the extent to which IB schools promote or impede the development of authentic independent individuals in a Jungian sense who can both resist homogeneity and perceive a sense of membership within a global community. I would suggest that Jung’s emphasis on the development of a unique self (i.e. personality) that is not easily influenced by others could prove to be the most significant determinant of international mindedness long-term growth. Research and development in this area could consider the introduction of an international mindedness coordinator role in all IB schools with the primary responsibility of encouraging a symbolic understanding of the concept that can revitalize a teacher’s sense of participation in a global mission to lead others on an archetypal journey.

I am additionally interested in how leadership sacralization could be impacted by manifestations of the shadow archetype that contains our hidden fears and aspects of ourselves that are difficult to accept. I would suggest that each attribute of the IB Learner Profile could contain a ‘mirror’ shadow archetypal characteristic that could shed light on some of the darker aspects of leadership in these schools. A study in this area could aid the development of a psychological audit system for IB leaders to create a psychologically safe environment for the school community.

Other approaches that may prove fruitful for future researchers would be the exploration of using technology such as neural feedback devices to document affective responses during interviews or observations. Overall, the understandings gained in my paper could help to establish Jungian archetypes and leadership sacralization as a significant influence on future discussions related to theory and practice in this area.

Conclusion

One of the fundamental contributions of this literature review and ontological analysis is my hypothesis that Elite Traditional International Baccalaureate schools could strengthen institutional legitimacy by adopting a Jungian archetypal approach to international mindedness education that could sacralize leadership space. In order to address this hypothesis, I developed a conceptual framework for a novel understanding of leadership in these schools that expands existing knowledge in this area by integrating and building on theories involving institutional legitimacy, sacralization of leadership and Jungian archetypal theory. I challenge others to recognize the ancient self within us all that longs for a return to a more meaningful existence. It is time to embark on a journey to re-sacralize this under researched area of study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

David S. Suits

David S. Suits is American and Dutch, born in Italy. He currently teaches Digital Design and Psychology at an international school in Northern Europe. He is additionally a Doctoral Candidate (Doctor of Education-EdD) at the University of Bath in the United Kingdom.