The view of leadership on teaching newly arrived migrant students in preschools and schools

ABSTRACT

With an increasingly diverse student population due to migration, adequately teaching and instructing all students is a pertinent educational issue. The research framework is based on culturally responsive teaching and culturally responsive school leadership. This research explores Estonian preschool and school leadership views on teachers’ work with newly arrived migrant students, and the support leaders provide to teachers’ instruction of newly arrived migrant students. The study utilized purposive sampling to reflect the views and practices of leaders from preschools and schools that have accepted newly arrived migrant students. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews with 12 preschool and school leaders. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the data. The results indicate that although diversity is valued in participating organizations, it is not utilized in student learning as an asset and richness. In addition, leaders support teachers in teaching newly arrived migrant students by enhancing collaboration, professional development, and hiring additional staff. This study contributes to the understanding that more attention must be paid to culturally responsive school leadership to implement culturally responsive teaching successfully.

Introduction

Due to the waves of migration, the issue of culturally responsive teaching and leadership is becoming more relevant. School leadership is crucial in establishing culturally responsive and inclusive environments (Faas et al., 2018). Also, school leaders are accountable for hiring and retaining teachers capable of working in diverse contexts and with marginalized students, working collaboratively to bring about change (Lopez, 2016). Nevertheless, schools frequently tend to stress similarities among cultures and the assimilation of minority groups into the mainstream culture (Civitillo et al., 2019). Such approaches to cultural diversity in education are insufficient to promote equity and sustain cultural pluralism (Gorski, 2016; Portera, 2008). Further, growing school tension is related to the cultural mismatch between increasingly diverse student populations and a homogenous teaching force (Smits & Janssenswillen, 2020). Moreover, the ethnic and cultural mismatch in teaching practices can negatively affect newly arrived migrant students (NAMSs) because the lack of culturally responsive practice ignores their prior experiences and the cultural aspects of their identities (Kintner-Duffy et al., 2022).

Culturally responsive teachers are expected to endorse positive beliefs about cultural diversity and act as reflective practitioners (Civitillo et al., 2019). Nevertheless, many teachers graduate from conventional teacher education without the intercultural competence to teach and lead students from a global perspective (Pitre & Clarke, 2017). Previous research results from different European countries highlight that teachers feel unprepared and insecure when confronted in the same classroom with students from different backgrounds and with various home languages (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019). According to the TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey), about one-fifth of principals reported that the issues hindering quality instruction are a shortage of qualified teachers (24.6%) and a shortage of teachers with competence in teaching students in a multicultural or multilingual setting (23.5%) in EU countries (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2019). Teachers, however, have indicated that they have received little training in providing support responsive to NAMSs’ academic, linguistic, social, cultural, and psychological needs (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2021; Vigren et al., 2022).

School leaders lead the culture of teaching and learning, human resources, school culture and are responsible for the development and learning of all school community members (Eisenschmidt et al., 2021). Influential leaders promote and sustain an environment stable enough to attract, maintain, and support the further development of good teachers (Khalifa et al., 2016). The recent TALIS survey (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2020) reported that 45% of Estonian principals had often supported cooperation among teachers to develop new teaching practices. Just as students need a safe environment to ensure learning happens, teachers need support to move through processes of change and professional development (Harris, 2002) involving a change in attitudes. However, different attitudes in the teaching staff, for example, a different degree of willingness to change, can result in conflicts or disagreements (Kiel et al., 2017). A recent study (Vanahans et al., 2023) among Estonian preschool and primary teachers revealed that negative colleague attitudes toward teaching NAMSs caused stress for teachers, mainly when not addressed by leaders. What is more, teachers feel they do not receive enough support from school leadership, and in many schools, teachers perceive management as indifferent or even discouraging to their progress and development (Eisenschmidt et al., 2015). Therefore, we explore in this article how preschool and school leaders perceive and describe teachers’ work with NAMSs and how they support teachers’ instruction of NAMSs.

Organizing culturally responsive teaching

Culturally responsive teaching

The central idea of culturally responsive teaching is that learners are sources of knowledge and skills (Ladson-Billings, 2009), making cultural diversity a valuable resource in the learning environment, which, if skillfully considered, can make every learner feel valued, regardless of their identity (Gay, 2000; Rääsk et al., 2020). However, many teachers from mainstream backgrounds often are not aware of the influence of culture on their own and their students’ attitudes, values, and behaviors, nor are they aware of the effects of culture on teaching and learning (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009). Research indicates that teachers frequently operate from a ‘color-blind’ or a ‘culture-blind’ perspective (Civitillo et al., 2019; Taylor & Sobel, 2011) in which teachers believe that it is not appropriate to notice or discuss ethnicity in the classroom (Vanahans et al., 2023). Moreover, the prevalence of a culture-blind perspective is related to the lack of culturally responsive teaching practices (Civitillo et al., 2019).

High-quality instruction for NAMSs has two general characteristics: a view of language as a resource rather than a deficiency and an emphasis on academic achievement, not only on learning the language of instruction (Beisly et al., 2023). When newcomer students’ success becomes a natural part of curriculum and instruction, they genuinely feel supported, motivated, and included (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2021). Employing language modification or scaffolding strategies like modeling, gesturing, and pictures are critical for diverse learners (de Araujo et al., 2016). In addition, differentiation enhances the learning of NAMSs, requiring teachers’ advanced subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skills, and classroom management skills (Beisly et al., 2023). Teachers must know the content, adapt it for different learners, and juggle different learning plans in the same classroom.

A critical preparation component for culturally responsive teaching is creating a classroom environment conducive to learning for ethnically diverse students (Gay, 2000). When designing the learning environment, teachers must not focus too much on the superficial aspects of culture and traditional cultural objects (flags, patterns, etc.) but go deeper into the classroom design and start with communicating values (Hammond, 2015). Using students’ characteristics, languages, and cultures in the learning environment supports their sense of belonging and learning (Gay, 2000; Taylor & Sobel, 2011). Immigrant parents’ knowledge about their children is an essential source for teachers and leaders in bridging the disconnection between the curricular goals and NAMSs’ prior learning experiences. Moreover, the social integration of parents has a strong positive impact on children’s academic achievement and their adaptation to the school system (Sinkkonen & Kyttälä, 2014). Engaging immigrant parents effectively can mobilize and utilize their knowledge to assist students’ transition, integration, and social inclusion (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2021).

Supporting the teaching of newly arrived migrants

The role of school leadership is central to promoting a school community that values diversity and experiences it as a richness and an asset (Jantunen et al., 2022). However, diversity should be viewed as an advantage for an organization rather than a threat or problem (Civitillo et al., 2019). If diversity is not recognized, it can lead to a situation where various groups and structural inequalities remain unnoticed (Jantunen et al., 2022). School leaders are bridge builders for students with diverse cultural backgrounds (Lopez, 2016). By embracing culturally responsive leadership (CRL), they can create inclusive and supportive instruction environments that foster positive relationships and cooperation, contributing to the academic success of all students (Genao, 2021).

Being a culturally responsive school leader involves understanding cultural differences within diverse student populations, understanding the norms and values of these diverse populations, being sensitive to the transitions of students between home and school, and adapting communication with parents to be responsive to cultural norms (Faas et al., 2018). CRL is demonstrated through (1) critical self-reflections on leadership behaviors, (2) creating a welcoming and inclusive school environment that addresses the social justice concerns about racism, discrimination, and exclusion experienced by NAMSs, (3) recruiting and supporting teachers to adopt culturally responsive curriculum, instruction and services with appropriate resources, and (4) celebrating achievements and progress with teachers, students, parents, and engaging important community stakeholders as cultural agents and resources (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2021; Khalifa et al., 2016).

In the context of growing cultural diversity, a vital issue for school leaders is understanding teachers’ readiness and preparedness to teach in culturally diverse environments. Indeed, a recent international review of the integration of immigrant students acknowledged that handling cultural diversity in class is complex and requires preparation (OECD, 2019). Educational change regarding teaching practices to improve student learning is more successful when teachers collaborate with their colleagues (Amels et al., 2023). Research shows that when teachers collaborate to improve their schools, they can collectively identify the school’s needs, develop targeted and compelling innovations, and, ultimately, implement innovations (Meyer et al., 2023). Teachers need to see how their work and that of their colleagues could affect school development (Eisenschmidt et al., 2021). School leaders can ensure that teachers have sufficient time and resources, support the creation of teacher teams, guide these teams on the process level (e.g. goal-setting), and motivate teachers to achieve the desired organizational changes (Meyer et al., 2023). Although school leaders consider fostering collaboration and collective practices among teaching staff crucial in supporting teachers by creating various arenas that enable interaction and cooperative practices (Eisenschmidt et al., 2021), teachers’ perception of school leadership support is connected with their involvement in school development processes and positive school culture in general, but not with collegial cooperation (Eisenschmidt et al., 2015). In addition to teacher education and training, another good source of support for teachers in addressing the needs of NAMSs in school is the availability of teaching assistants (Sinkkonen & Kyttälä, 2014).

Estonian context

As in most Western nations, Estonian preschools and schools face the challenges of accommodating the needs, knowledge, and perspectives of NAMSs. Students are considered NAMSs in Estonia when they have arrived from the EU or other countries and have lived in Estonia for less than five years (Riigi Teataja, 2014). In Estonia, research concerning teaching NAMSs and how preschools and schools cope with it is scarce, and a systematic approach to teaching NAMSs is lacking (Kaldur et al., 2021). While earlier research focused primarily on the Estonian-Russian ethnic group axis, the increase in migration over the past decade has led to a new understanding and need to address not only ethnic minorities but also NAMSs. Today, Estonia’s preschools and schools have very different experiences in teaching and supporting children of newcomers ‒ some have had NAMSs for years, while others have never had any. Due to the war in Ukraine, more than 7900 NAMSs have arrived at Estonian pre- and basic schools (Haridussilm, n.d.), making the issue of educating NAMSs even more crucial. Therefore, we aim to explore how preschool and school leaders perceive and describe teachers’ work with NAMSs and how they support teachers’ instruction of NAMSs. We posed the following research questions:

1. How do preschool and school leaders describe teachers’ work context involving newly arrived migrant students?

2. How do preschool and school leaders perceive the teaching of newly arrived migrant students?

3. What leadership practices do preschool and school leaders use in supporting teachers’ work with newly arrived migrant students?

Method

Participants

According to the information from the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research, only preschools and schools that have accepted NAMSs within the last five years were included in the study. At first, the first author contacted via e-mail and phone with 12 principals from preschools (N = 7) and basic schools (N = 5), of which teachers had participated in the previous stage of the study (Vanahans et al., 2023). This previous study explored Estonian preschool and primary teachers’ evaluations of their preparedness, competence, and experiences in teaching NAMSs. One principal declined to participate in the study, and two principals suggested contacting the headteachers instead, who participated in the study. The final sample (Table 1) consisted of nine principals and two headteachers from six preschools and five schools. The leaders participated in the study voluntarily, and for the confidentiality codes are used as follows: P – preschool, S – school, L – leader, 1–3 for sequence number (PL1, PL2, etc. and SL1, SL2, etc.).

Table 1. Participants’ background information.

Code	Educational institution	Profession	Age (M = 47.9)	Experience as a leader (M = 10.5)	Leadership experience group
PL1	Preschool	Principal	43	8	Competent
PL2	Preschool	Principal	48	4	Novice
PL3	Preschool	Principal	42	5	Competent
PL4	Preschool	Principal	41	10	Competent
PL5	Preschool	Principal	41	10	Competent
PL6	Preschool	Headteacher	63	5	Competent
SL1	School	Principal	41	1	Novice
SL2	School	Headteacher	37	1	Novice
SL3	School	Principal	53	22	Expert
SL4	School	Principal	62	30	Expert
SL5	School	Principal	56	9	Competent

Participants’ ages ranged from 37 to 63 years. All the leaders had general teaching experience ranging from seven to 22 years (M = 12.4). Based on the length of leadership experience, there were three novice leaders (≤4 years), six were competent (5–10 years), and two expert leaders (≥11 years).

Data collection

Semi-structured in-depth interviews were chosen as the data collection method as it allows additional questions and adjustments in the middle of the interview (Cohen et al., 2018). Topics were chosen, and interview questions were established according to the aim of the study, the literature review (i.e. Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009), and the results of recent studies in the Estonian context (Vanahans et al., 2023). The interview guide consisted of two parts. The first part of the interview included questions related to school leaders’ perceptions of teachers’ work context and teaching practices with NAMSs. The second part aimed to explore school leaders’ practices in supporting the teaching of NAMSs. The pilot interviews with two leaders were carried out. After the analysis of the pilot interviews, no changes were made to the interview guide. At the end of the interviews, leaders were allowed to elaborate on some of their previous answers.

Research participants were provided with information about the aim of the study, their rights as respondents (e.g. withdrawal), and data collection methods, including the storage, analysis, and use of the data. Before the interview, background data (age, teaching and leadership experience, education, professional development courses regarding teaching NAMSs) were collected via Google Forms. All the interviews were conducted at a time suitable for the participants in person (N = 6) or virtually in Google Meet (N = 5). The average duration of the interviews was 61 minutes (max = 77, min = 44). The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim and subsequently analyzed. The total length of the interview transcriptions was 180 pages.

Data analysis procedures

The interviews were analyzed using inductive content analysis, which permits an overview of the text as a whole, describe systematically the meaning of qualitative data, and analyze what is hidden between the lines (Schreier, 2012). For transcriptions, web-based software was used (Olev & Alumäe, 2022), and then the first author corrected the texts by hearing. For the analysis process, MAXQDA (version 24) software was used.

The first author read the transcriptions as the next step in data analysis. Then, meaningful segments (phrases or sentences) were marked, and initial codes were generated – the next step involved identifying subcategories and reviewing and refining the main categories. The researchers consulted with each other at every stage of the data analysis and discussed the resulting interpretations. After a thorough discussion, a consensus was reached among all three authors. The systematic coding process was elaborated, and subcategories, categories, and main categories were identified, reviewed, and refined (Schreier, 2012). Afterward, a data table was drafted with the codes grouped into subcategories under the main categories and structured concerning the research questions (see Figure 1). Triangulation and cross-member checking were used to ensure accuracy and validity (Cohen et al., 2018). Re-coding, in which the first author re-coded the interviews after two months, was also used to increase the reliability of the study. The results of the re-coding matched the first coding; however, some changes were made in the names of categories.

Figure 1. Example of category formation.

*NAMS – newly arrived migrant student.

Results

The results are presented in three sections, proceeding from the research questions. The first section describes how preschool and school leaders view teachers’ work contexts involving NAMSs. The second section details how preschool and school leaders perceive the teaching of NAMSs. The third section describes preschool and school leaders’ leadership practices supporting teachers’ work with NAMSs. The content analysis results are reported according to the categories and include interview excerpts.

Leaders’ view of teachers’ work contexts

The investigation of how preschool and school leaders viewed teachers’ work contexts involving NAMSs identified two main categories: designing the learning environment and factors influencing teachers’ work contexts.

Designing the learning environment

Leaders discussed social and physical learning environments in designing the learning environment. Regarding the social learning environment, leaders considered preschool and primary teachers’ collaboration with different parties essential: colleagues, parents, support specialists, and partners outside school. Leaders emphasized cooperation with colleagues the most, as they expected teachers to collaborate more. Preschool teachers were more open to collaboration with colleagues than primary teachers. Leaders outlined teachers shared their materials and experiences; some even cooperated in preschools to teach children.

In addition to the collegial cooperation, leaders stressed the importance of teachers’ collaboration with NAMSs’ parents in supporting the adaptation of students. The preschool leaders especially emphasized that the foremost thing was to build contact with the migrant family to find out their expectations and cultural background, as this enhances children’s adaptation process. The leaders viewed the language barrier as the main obstacle to effective communication with migrant families. Additionally, leaders alleged that cooperation was complicated when parents were disinterested in communicating and indifferent to learning the Estonian language and culture. Interestingly, one novice school leader asserted that Estonian primary teachers were not used to communicating as much as NAMSs’ parents expected:

One of the challenges is definitely communicating with their parents. Because these parents want to know a lot about school, they want to communicate a lot. They want as much information as possible about how the child is doing and what they need to do. In general, our teachers are not used to having to have a conversation. And the other thing is definitely the language problem. (SL2)

Leaders emphasized that teachers could be more open and proactive in including NAMSs’ parents and building contact.

Teachers’ collaboration with support specialists is essential, especially when NAMSs have problems with language acquisition and learning. All preschools and schools have a special educational needs (SEN) coordinator who directs the collaboration of the support team (e.g. speech therapists, special education pedagogues, psychologists, etc.) and teachers. When necessary, specialists from the local municipality or educational centers were included depending on the specific need.

Additionally, leaders highlighted the importance of supporting students’ collaboration and developing a safe learning environment. Leaders spoke more about preparing the rest of the group before the arrival of migrant students. When necessary, preschool teachers directed NAMSs to play with other children so that no one would be isolated or left out. Student collaboration in preschools and schools included group work so that NAMSs were grouped with Estonian students to enhance their learning of Estonian.

The physical learning environment was designed using learning materials and visual support for language learning. Leaders pointed out that cultural diversity did not show as much in the learning environment as they would have liked; however, preschool teachers were more prone to using visual aids. Some leaders said that teachers have not changed the physical learning environment. In contrast, others asserted that teachers have started to use more visual materials and language learning aids in their classrooms.

Factors influencing teacher’s work

Leaders pointed out several factors that influenced it: teachers’ characteristics, students’ characteristics, and educational policy context.

Teachers’ characteristics included background factors such as age and nationality, preparation, mind-set, and personal traits. Leaders perceived that teachers were different, and some characteristics had more impact. All leaders associated teachers’ age with preparedness to teach NAMSs. They pointed out that teachers from the older generation were more afraid and less open to changes that come with teaching NAMSs. Leaders in schools with a more multicultural teaching staff stressed that the cultural diversity of teachers enhanced collaboration and open-mindedness.

Teachers’ preparation for teaching NAMSs varied across schools and preschools. However, leaders who agreed that teachers in their schools or preschools were well-prepared were in the minority. They argued that teachers have learned mainly through practice. Some leaders asserted that the level of teachers’ preparation depended on the teachers themselves:

They are as competent as they want to be because the teacher is a self-learner, the materials are all there. (PL2)

Nevertheless, leaders valued professional development courses that supported teachers’ learning by practice.

Teachers’ mind-set was regarded as difficult to influence or change. Leaders claimed that teachers must work on their mind-set to understand their responsibility at the grassroots level. Leaders connected teachers’ mind-sets to motivation and will to find solutions and change their practice when teaching NAMSs. All leaders agreed that teaching NAMSs forced teachers out of their comfort zones. Some teachers, however, were reluctant to do so and felt that there could be fewer NAMSs. Half of the leaders had encountered teachers’ tendency toward obstinacy when experiencing a lack of interest and motivation from NAMSs’ parents.

Further, students’ characteristics influenced teachers’ classroom practices. Both preschool and primary teachers were more motivated and open when students quickly learned Estonian and participated actively in lessons and activities. However, it was more challenging when NAMSs had special educational needs, which made teaching more complicated. In addition, teachers were influenced by NAMSs’ motivation to learn Estonian and participate in lessons.

If a child has absolutely no motivation, rather the kind of… contemptuous attitude towards the Estonian language. It is actually tough; it is emotionally difficult. (SL3)

Firstly, leaders asserted that NAMSs’ motivation to learn Estonian was primarily connected to families’ plans depending on whether they planned to stay temporarily. Secondly, some leaders associated the lack of NAMSs’ motivation with teachers’ poor inclusion strategies and skills. Similarly, NAMSs’ motivation to learn and be active affected teachers positively and gave them a sense of achievement. Our findings revealed that the younger students were, the better they learned Estonian, positively influencing teachers’ work and motivation.

Different educational policies also affect teachers’ work context. Leaders emphasized three main factors contributing to the increase in teachers’ workload: the shortage of teachers, the number of NAMSs, and the size of the group or class. Leaders asserted that there should not be more than two NAMSs in one group or class. The increase in workload was related to teachers’ burnout.

Differences in the educational systems of NAMSs’ home countries and Estonia caused mutual stress. Cultural differences between the two countries made it difficult for parents to navigate the educational system or to accept certain Estonian norms, such as the age of schooling. This was especially evident among Ukrainian students and their families. Teachers had to explain to Ukrainian parents why their children could not go to school in Estonia at the same time as they did in Ukraine.

Leaders’ perceptions of teacher’s teaching practices

The investigation of how preschool and school leaders perceived teachers’ teaching of NAMSs identified one main category: learning process management, which consists of three categories: skills, attitudes, and knowledge.

Learning process management

Teachers’ attitudes, skills, and knowledge of learning process management are essential in a multicultural learning environment. Leaders talked about teachers’ skills in a culturally diverse classroom the most. They emphasized teachers’ pedagogical and instructional skills, language teaching skills, and skills concerning students’ development and assessment.

Teachers needed the skills to differentiate and individualize the learning of NAMSs. However, leaders argued that the level of these skills depended on the teacher.

Those who want to can [manage]. Those who understand and make it clear to themselves that this is what I am going to do, manage very well, and those who do not want to, do not. (PL2)

Many leaders stated that teachers have started using more differentiation in their classrooms. However, they were unsure whether it was only due to NAMSs, as other students also needed support in learning through differentiation owing to inclusive education in Estonian schools. Primary teachers have started using more group work, where students could actively participate in the learning process. Preschool teachers used project-based learning and demonstration to engage NAMSs actively in the learning activities.

Teaching students from different cultural backgrounds was considered challenging, and leaders compared it to tailor-made suits. Teachers have created individual learning plans for NAMSs. Also, it was stressed that it was important that teachers simplify and adapt learning content to NAMSs’ needs and consider NAMSs’ personalities (e.g. quiet students get attention). As there were students with special educational needs among NAMSs, teachers also needed to consider that in addition to the cultural background when planning lessons or activities. Nevertheless, regarding the significance of individualization, leaders pointed out several challenges. First, teachers lacked the time to do it, as compiling worksheets and games for NAMSs was time-consuming. For example, as one preschool leader reflected on this:

We just saw that ‘individual work’ is a beautiful word, but practically, the teacher just does not have that time resource there. (PL4)

Second, another obstacle to individualization was the Estonian language skill of NAMSs. Therefore, preschools and schools put much effort into teaching the Estonian language.

In a multicultural classroom, teachers must have the skills to teach NAMSs without a common language. In this study, leaders viewed it as rather challenging for teachers. One of the challenges was teaching diverse groups. Teachers mainly translated and taught vocabulary. Those who spoke Russian used it when teaching NAMSs; therefore, they did not enable the students to learn Estonian. This leads to another obstacle that leaders pointed out – teachers lacked the skills to teach Estonian as a second language. It was asserted that the immersion method was insufficient in schools, as teachers needed to teach Estonian separately. Also, one competent leader pointed out the importance of content and language-integrated learning, where every teacher was a language teacher as well. In preschools, all the activities were in Estonian, and teachers used gestures, mimics, and demonstrations.

Considering the language and the culture of NAMSs was a rather demanding task for teachers. In some preschools, teachers asked NAMSs’ parents for words and phrases in their language and used these in the activities. Still, some leaders expressed their concern for the other Estonian students who might remain unnoticed as teachers struggle with students’ special educational needs.

When discussing teachers’ attitudes, leaders asserted openness among the teaching staff. The leaders argued that teachers have become more open and tolerant. The readiness to accept NAMSs has improved and was perceived as individual and value-based, yet leaders alleged that there were always a few teachers against it. The leaders did not assign NAMSs to their group in these cases, especially in bigger preschools or schools. To avoid confrontation, leaders said that teachers must have this wish and interest in teaching NAMSs; it cannot be forced upon them. This demanded that leaders worked with teachers before preparing them to accept NAMSs. It was pointed out that some teachers were not openly negative; however, they ignored NAMSs in their classes. According to leaders, teachers who ignored NAMSs said these students must cope like the other students. In addition, participants regarded that teachers could include NAMSs better if they only wanted to.

Both among leaders and teachers was evident the culture-blind attitude, viewing children as children and referring to the fact that when NAMSs were part of their preschool or school, they were just like any other student, and the language they were speaking was irrelevant. It was pointed out that NAMSs have always been in their school and, therefore, have become part of everyday life and routine, and it was not necessary to highlight it somehow.

Experience in teaching NAMSs, dealing with uncertainty, and stepping out of one’s comfort zone has prepared teachers to tolerate ambiguity better, as this has become their new teaching reality. Despite mainly positive attitudes among teachers, leaders remarked that on some occasions, teachers showed inconsistency in their attitudes toward teaching NAMSs:

I can say that these attitudes fluctuate. When the first children arrived, then there was great opposition to that. This is uncomfortable for the teacher; you must do something differently, and teachers must come out of their comfort zones and daily routines. Nevertheless, as the first experiences were very positive, the emotion went up that NAMSs enriched school life. Then again, the attitudes declined when more NAMSs arrived from the Middle East./ … /Then it calms down, and now, with the Ukrainians, the emotions are up, that there are too many of them and the Estonian school might be taken over. (SL3)

Leaders assessed teachers’ knowledge of other cultures rather poorly. However, they argued that teachers needed to have general cultural knowledge, such as collectivist and individualist cultures, not to hurt unintentionally students from different cultures. Competent leaders stressed that teachers were eager to learn about the cultures of NAMSs in their group. Also, the more different cultures in the group, the more difficult it was for the teachers to learn about them and consider them when teaching. Only school leaders talked about teachers’ knowledge about teaching NAMSs. They pointed out that teachers needed to know how to adjust learning to the needs and culture of NAMSs. Teachers must have this knowledge so that they would not reduce it to the language barrier:

The teacher said that firstly, she does not speak Russian. And because she does not speak Russian, she cannot help them [NAMSs]. (SL2)

Leaders acknowledged that taking NAMSs’ culture into account in the learning process was challenging for teachers. They reckoned with NAMSs’ culture mainly on superficial elements of culture, such as food, holidays, and religion. Most schools and preschools provided NAMSs meals according to their religious beliefs. However, one competent preschool leader was willing to accept differences in catering only to medical issues. Only one younger competent preschool and older expert school leader valued NAMSs’ language as a resource by allowing them to use their language in activities and schoolwork. Teachers used the Google Translate app on mobile devices to translate NAMSs’ work.

Leader’s support

The investigation of how preschool and school leaders explained their leadership in supporting teachers’ work with NAMSs identified three main categories: staff decisions, relationship management, and strategic decisions.

Staff decisions

The synthesis of the findings revealed that leaders implemented supportive measures for teaching NAMSs and teaching management. The supportive measures included teachers’ professional development (PD), hiring additional staff, and motivating teachers. All leaders expressed the importance of PD courses for teachers. Usually, leaders expected teachers to choose the necessary courses. However, when the leader saw a broader need for a course or PD program, it was ordered to the preschool or school. Leaders also support teachers’ PD by financing their courses and finding replacements.

Most preschool and school leaders had employed extra staff to support the teaching of NAMSs. The most common positions were assistant teachers and teachers of Estonian as a second language. In some cases, leaders had the finances to employ a special education specialist or a psychologist. One novice school leader had created a position for a NAMSs’ coordinator who collaborated with teachers and NAMSs’ families. Leaders considered hiring additional staff essential, yet the finances for some organizations did not enable it. Interestingly, only preschool leaders talked about motivating teachers with additional wages. They explained that they tried to pay supplemental sums to the teachers willing to do extra work with NAMSs (such as the Estonian language teaching) whenever possible.

Teaching management included the organization of teaching and learning, the organization of work, and leaders’ expectations for teachers. All leaders alleged that they had made arrangements to organize the teaching and learning of NAMSs. In some schools, leaders have decided not to grade first-year NAMSs. This measure supported teachers and students, providing a safe learning environment and a smooth adaptation process. Also, tandem lessons were supported by appointing two primary teachers to one group of students. In some preschools, leaders have arranged separate Estonian learning activities for NAMSs. Concerning the teaching and learning process of NAMSs, leaders expected teachers to create the best conditions for developing NAMSs so that their learning would be meaningful.

Teachers were highly autonomous in preschools and schools in this study. Leaders have agreed on a broader frame with teachers, but teachers can choose teaching methods and materials and adjust their working schedules. Both preschool and school leaders asserted that they have paid much attention to and support teachers’ autonomy. While they expected teachers to take responsibility, they supported teachers when challenging situations arose. Leaders anticipated teachers to be self-directed professionals who were independent and motivated. Teachers should have intrinsic motivation and a desire to attend PD courses according to their needs. In addition, trust was highlighted; leaders gave teachers trust credit and expected them to take responsibility accordingly. Leaders also wanted teachers to cooperate and support each other. Teachers should collaborate effectively, especially in preschools, with three people in one children’s group.

Relationship management

The following categories emerged in the analysis: communication and collaboration among staff, collaboration with external partners, and collaboration with parents. Leaders paid much attention to the relationships in their organizations and used several strategies to promote communication and collaboration among staff. Quite commonly, leaders supported cooperation by creating time-spaces in the timetable for teachers. Study circles were also used for teachers, where one teacher prepared the topic and shared his/her experience with the others. The collaboration among teachers was better in organizations where leaders knowingly separated time and space for cooperation. In addition, leaders who had created systems for collaboration (such as mentoring) did not have to pay extra attention to cooperation.

All preschool and school leaders agreed that teachers needed support and had taken measures to do that. Most commonly, leaders gave teachers moral support by always being available and ready to listen to the teachers’ concerns. Also, encouragement was often used as a means of support. Leaders expected teachers to come and talk openly to solve the issues together, and when necessary, leaders handled the difficult conversations themselves. Besides moral support, some leaders had created a support system of specialists.

I think they [teachers] feel that they are supported and some of the burden has been lifted due to the NAMSs’ coordinator. (SL1)

In my preschool, I feel that hiring a separate Estonian language teacher, it is actually such a huge support for teachers. (PL3)

Also, leaders tackled the challenges and issues collaboratively with teachers and other specialists. When needed, leaders organized group supervision to find the best solution to the problem.

Schools and preschools collaborated with different external partners. Cooperation with other schools and preschools in the district was prevalent, with sharing experiences and regular meetings. Also, some school leaders highlighted collaboration with Estonian universities. Besides, international projects, such as Erasmus+, were valued at the organizational level and were highly beneficial for teachers. Moreover, one younger, competent preschool leader collaborated with volunteers from Europe.

When collaborating with parents, the school leadership had the first contact with NAMSs’ parents. Leaders introduced their organization and the educational system of Estonia to parents. All leaders agreed that the child’s family also arrived when a NAMS arrived at their school. Leaders asserted that not only teachers were occasionally intimidated, but the family as well. In these instances, leaders calmed the parents and offered support. Moreover, in some schools, parents were offered Estonian language learning courses and meetings to get acquainted with the school system. In preschools, different events were common for all families where NAMSs’ parents had the opportunity to introduce their culture.

Strategic decisions

Leaders’ strategic decisions consist of leaders’ leadership choices and pedagogical choices in their organizations. When leaders talked about leadership choices, it was evident that they had a vision of intercultural organization. A competent preschool leader elaborated that she had planned to open an international group in her preschool. In addition, school leaders set goals of paying more substantial attention to European democratic values and creating an environment of discussions among staff and students. Besides, goals were set on how to motivate parents of NAMSs to learn Estonian. Leaders have started to reflect on the intercultural issues in their organizations and how to better cope with them and support teachers.

When implementing strategy and achieving results, leaders emphasize creating school culture. They also include teachers in strategic decisions in their organizations. Teachers led chairs and different development groups that helped to implement set goals and achieve results. Leaders needed to guide teachers and give them responsibility for taking charge of developmental goals and activities. Leaders systematically created solutions in cooperation with teachers to support the teaching of NAMSs.

Pedagogical choices included curricular decisions and the direction of educational institutions. Although leaders had a vision of creating an intercultural organization, most did not consider it essential to make necessary changes to the curriculum. In addition, several leaders said that their curriculum was being changed, but they have not considered making any changes concerning NAMSs. As some competent and expert leaders narrated:

No, we have not changed [the curriculum]. We have the curriculum like every preschool with Estonian as a second language./ … /As these children [NAMSs] have been in our preschool all the time, we do not notice it/ … / (PL4)

We do not bring it extra in [to the curriculum]; this is one of the peculiarities of our school that we have these different cultures, but we have not planned to bring it extra into the curriculum. (SL3)

An expert school leader expressed that the national curriculum sets boundaries that leave schools with little space to adapt their curricula. The national curriculum determines the number of lessons, making it difficult for schools to include extra lessons or activities. The changes in the curricula were mainly concerned with teaching Estonian as a second language. However, the languages and cultures of NAMSs were not part of the curricula. Only one novice school leader confirmed that they want to include multiculturality in their curriculum when they start to change it.

Discussion

Diverse students, including NAMSs, are an increasingly global phenomenon in the classroom. In this study, we found that according to Estonian preschool and school leaders, teachers need better skills to teach in culturally diverse environments. In addition, teachers’ readiness to include NAMSs has improved; however, it could be even higher. Taking into account students’ backgrounds and culture needs enhancing. Leaders have taken steps to support teachers in teaching NAMSs. The biggest support mechanisms were hiring additional staff, fostering collegial collaboration, supporting teachers’ autonomy and responsibility, and being there for teachers when necessary. Leaders have become more aware of intercultural issues in their organizations; despite that, these topics were not integrated into the curriculum.

Leaders’ view of teacher’s work context

First, we explored how preschool and school leaders described teachers’ work context involving NAMSs. Educational change regarding teaching practices to improve student learning is more successful when teachers collaborate with their colleagues (Amels et al., 2023). In line with earlier research (Eisenschmidt et al., 2021), leaders in the present study considered fostering collaboration and collective practices among teaching staff important and expected teachers to collaborate more. In addition to the collegial cooperation, leaders stressed the importance of teachers’ collaboration with NAMSs’ parents in supporting the adaptation of students. This follows earlier research findings (Sinkkonen & Kyttälä, 2014) suggesting that immigrant parents’ knowledge about their children helps teachers and leaders to bridge the disconnection between the curricular goals and NAMSs’ prior learning experiences. Moreover, this finding proposes that when teachers effectively engage immigrant parents, they support NAMSs’ transition, integration, and social inclusion (Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2021) and academic success. Although the use of students’ characteristics, languages, and cultures in the learning environment supports their sense of belonging and learning (Gay, 2000; Taylor & Sobel, 2011), leaders pointed out that cultural diversity did not show as much in the learning environment as they would have liked it. Hence, school leaders can support the creation of a culturally responsive learning environment by adopting culturally responsive leadership.

Leaders stressed several factors influencing teachers’ work context, such as teachers’ characteristics, students’ characteristics, and educational policy context. Teachers’ characteristics included teachers’ preparation to teach NAMSs. Our results indicated that the level of teachers’ preparedness to teach NAMSs was uneven, varying across preschools and schools. In the previous study (Vanahans et al., 2023), preschool and primary teachers regarded the NAMSs’ teaching experience as the primary source of learning. Similarly, leaders in this study argued that teachers have learned mainly through practice. In addition, leaders viewed the level of teachers’ preparation as dependent on the teachers themselves. Nevertheless, leaders valued professional development (PD) courses that supported teachers’ learning by practice. Therefore, to proactively address the challenges of teaching in culturally diverse settings, leadership should prioritize supporting the development of necessary knowledge and skills through teachers’ PD opportunities.

In this study, teachers’ age was one characteristic leaders associated with preparedness to teach NAMSs. In line with a study conducted among Finnish teachers (Vigren et al., 2022), where younger teachers and teachers with less experience had a higher understanding of second language acquisition than older and more experienced teachers, leaders in our study pointed out that older teachers were more afraid and less open to changes. Our results indicate that younger teachers seem to have more updated knowledge, supportive attitudes, and possibly simply more exposure to the ideas of culturally responsive teaching.

According to TALIS (OECD, 2019), school leaders should understand teachers’ readiness to teach multicultural classes in the context of growing cultural diversity. The finding that teachers’ readiness to accept NAMSs has improved was expected (Vanahans et al., 2023); however, some opposition was still prevalent among teachers. In addition, leaders regarded that teachers could better include NAMSs if they only wanted to. Different attitudes in the teaching staff can result in conflicts or disagreements (Kiel et al., 2017) when not addressed by leadership.

Leaders’ perceptions of teacher’s teaching practices

Second, we investigated how preschool and school leaders perceived teachers’ teaching of NAMSs. On the one hand, leaders stressed the importance of teachers having the skills to differentiate and individualize the learning of NAMSs. However, the level of these skills depended on the teacher. As high-quality instruction for NAMSs includes differentiation as it enhances the learning of NAMSs (Beisly et al., 2023), leaders should support the development of teaching skills necessary in a culturally diverse classroom. Leaders in this study compared teaching students from different backgrounds to tailor-made suits. Still, among leaders and teachers, the culture-blind attitude was evident, viewing children as children and stating that when NAMSs were part of their preschool or school, they were just as any other student, and the language they spoke was irrelevant. The prevalence of a culture-blind perspective in Estonian preschools and schools indicates insufficient knowledge of culturally responsive teaching and leadership practices.

In a multicultural classroom, teachers must have the skills to teach NAMSs without a common language. However, considering the language and the culture of NAMSs, it was seen as challenging for teachers. Notwithstanding the previous research (e.g. Beisly et al., 2023; de Araujo et al., 2016) that views language as a resource, according to the leaders, teachers expected NAMSs to learn the language of instruction quickly so they could effectively participate in the learning process. Interestingly, only one preschool and school leader acknowledged NAMSs’ first language in their schools. This finding indicates that the topic of NAMSs’ first language as a resource is relatively new to the participants and might describe both teachers’ and leaders’ lack of knowledge of culturally responsive teaching and leadership.

Culturally competent and responsive teachers adapt and align instruction to the needs of culturally diverse students. Leaders acknowledged that taking NAMSs’ culture into account in the learning process was challenging for teachers. This might be related to the fact that many teachers graduate from conventional teacher education without the intercultural competence to teach and lead students from a global perspective (Pitre & Clarke, 2017). The result confirms the importance of developing teachers’ intercultural competence and cultural responsiveness in teacher training and PD courses.

Leader’s support

Third, we investigated what leadership practices preschool and school leaders use in supporting teachers’ work with NAMSs. In line with previous findings (OECD, 2019), the leaders of this study expressed the importance of PD courses. The quality of conditions for teaching and learning also hinges on school leaders’ time and efforts to support teachers and their professional development and provide instructional leadership and related activities in their schools (Khalifa et al., 2016). In addition to teacher education and training, another good source of support for teachers in addressing the needs of NAMSs in school is the availability of teaching assistants (Sinkkonen & Kyttälä, 2014). Most preschool and school leaders had employed extra staff to support the teaching of NAMSs. Contrary to previous research (Eisenschmidt et al., 2015), where teachers felt that they did not receive enough support from school leadership and perceived management as indifferent or even discouraging to their progress and development, all leaders in our study agreed that teachers needed to be supported and had taken measures to do that. This may be due to the better inclusion of teachers and fostering cooperation among teaching staff.

School leaders manage the culture of teaching and learning, human resources, and school culture and are responsible for the development and learning of all members of their school community (Eisenschmidt et al., 2021). When implementing strategy and achieving results, leaders focus on creating school culture. Also, leaders include teachers in strategic decisions in their organizations. Teachers led chairs and different development groups that helped to implement set goals and achieve results.

This study indicated that leaders expected teachers to collaborate more and supported cooperation by creating time spaces in the timetable for teachers. This finding is congruent with previous research that collegial collaboration enhances the successful implementation of educational change regarding teaching practices to improve student learning (Amels et al., 2023; Meyer et al., 2023). Moreover, we found that teacher collaboration was better in organizations where leaders knowingly separated time and space for cooperation. Therefore, leaders must ensure that teachers have sufficient time and resources, support in creating teacher teams, guide these teams on the process level, and motivate teachers to achieve the desired organizational changes.

Leaders in our study have given teachers high autonomy, but they also expected teachers to take responsibility and show initiative. This corroborates the finding that leadership that specifically prompts teachers to recognize their ownership of change initiatives may be crucial to the development of such a working environment (Amels et al., 2023). For teachers to embrace culturally responsive teaching, leaders must implement culturally responsive leadership. School leaders who are culturally relevant develop practices, policies, and procedures that emphasize high expectations while also allowing teachers and students to develop a critical social consciousness to recognize, understand, and challenge social norms and practices (Ladson-Billings, 2009)Therefore, by supporting teachers’ professional development and autonomy, school leaders can create inclusive and supportive teaching and learning environments that foster positive relationships and cooperation, contributing to the academic success of all students.

In Estonia, as in many countries, the increasing number of NAMSs in the classrooms underscores the need for teacher education to include and reflect the demographic changes in society. Although the results of this study were quite promising, they also revealed a lack of culturally responsive teaching and leadership practices in Estonian preschools and schools that need attention in teacher education and in-service teacher training. Furthermore, similar results were found compared to other international studies on teaching culturally diverse students (de Araujo et al., 2016; Faas et al., 2018; Kiel et al., 2017; Vigren et al., 2022). This indicates that many countries face similar problems in providing equal education and access to society for all members.

Despite the lack of culturally responsive pedagogical training, based on the findings of this study, teachers and leaders in Estonia in participating schools seem to be quite open to cultural diversity. This is a good prerequisite for changing educational practices to be more supportive and inclusive. An important matter that arises from the current study is how to ensure that new student teachers can gain experiences with diverse students already during their studies and that in-service teachers are exposed to the latest research. Also, more attention must be paid to leaders’ perceptions of culturally responsive teaching and leadership and their preparation for supporting and implementing culturally responsive leadership.

This study contains some limitations that must be noted. The sample is quite homogeneous. All the participants were from preschools and schools that have accepted NAMSs. Although the study focused on the perceptions of leadership from preschools and schools with experience in teaching NAMSs, valuable information could also be gained from the opinions of leaders from preschools and schools without such experience. Secondly, the range of issues in this study is broad and complex and should be investigated in depth separately in the future.

Based on the findings, we may propose some implications. For a majority of practicing teachers, lack of preparation in and exposure to fundamentally sound culturally responsive practices within their teacher preparation programs or in-service professional development endeavors have left them ill-equipped with a conceptual understanding of this essential framework. Therefore, more attention must be paid to teacher education programs in universities and professional development courses. Future research should examine leadership practices and preparedness to lead schools culturally responsively. In addition, while there may be a collegial emphasis (or ignorance) of cultural diversity to a certain extent within the same school, studying the interplay between practices and personal attitudes would present an understanding of how teaching NAMSs is supported in the classroom (Civitillo et al., 2019).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Maiki Vanahans

Maiki Vanahans is a doctoral student at the School of Educational Sciences at Tallinn University, a lecturer at the Institute of Education at the University of Tartu, and a preschool principal near Tallinn, Laagri. Her research interests include intercultural education, teachers’ intercultural competence, and culturally responsive pedagogy.

Inge Timoštšuk

Inge Timoštšuk is a professor of primary education at the School of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University. She has authored and edited numerous articles and books on teachers’ professional development and primary and science education. She has also run and participated in many projects in the field of education.

Krista Uibu

Krista Uibu is a professor of primary education at the Institute of Education, University of Tartu. She is an award-winning author who has published numerous articles on pedagogy and didactics. She has also participated in several educational projects and is an executive editor of the Estonian Journal of Education.