Religious feelings in early and late adulthood

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to compare different phases of adulthood in terms of religious feelings. To achieve this objective, semantic subgroups derived from expressions of religious feelings encompassed positive and negative qualities, situational context, and regulatory strategies. This process was rooted in Walesa’s cognitive-developmental theory of integral religious development. Under positive qualities, the subcategories included reflexivity, multiple feelings, trust, joy, and love. Negative qualities yielded subcategories of anger, reflexivity, lack of negative feelings, transformation, grief, and multiple feelings. The situational context subcategory was defined by intellectual evaluation, religious practices, and engagement in religious situations. Regulatory strategies encompassed subcategories related to secular and religious life issues, as well as orientation towards eternity. The study included 160 Catholics, with 80 in early adulthood and 80 in late adulthood. Analyses revealed significant differences between these groups across all categories. Early adulthood featured diverse, multifaceted religious feelings, while late adulthood exhibited more uniform, coherent religious feelings, including trust, religious engagement, and orientation towards eternity. Moreover, multilayer perceptron analysis effectively predicted developmental stages based on specific subcategories, shedding light on the dynamic nature of religious feelings across the lifespan and contributing valuable insights to the field of psychology of religion.

KEYWORDS:

• Religious feelings
• qualitative research
• early and late adulthood
• multilayer perceptron

Introduction

In the realm of psychological analyses of religiosity, scholars have directed their attention towards investigating one of its key components – religious feelings (Pargament 2001). This topic draws the interest of experts from various fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, and theology (Tatala 2000). The nature of religious feelings appears to depend on the context and analytical perspective (Beckford 2003). In a general sense, they can be defined as subjective emotional experiences related to the spiritual dimension of reality and an individual desire to establish a relationship with what is considered spiritual, sacred, or divine (Walesa 2005). Religious feelings influence individual behaviour, thinking processes, feelings, and the shaping of their identity, morality, and overall worldview (Spilka, Shaver, and Kirkpatrick 1985). They are characterised by deep subjectivity and individuality, closely tied to the spiritual aspects of life. Among religious feelings, various determinants can be observed, including both positive and negative domains (Kim-Prieto and Diener 2009). The former include feelings of love, peace, gratitude, ecstasy, and awe. On the other hand, negative feelings encompass feelings of guilt, sacred anxiety, or anger (Tatala 2000). This diversity of feelings can arise from various religious contexts, beliefs, and life experiences (Wołońciej, Wilczewski, and Kreitler 2021). Each of these feelings plays a unique role in one’s life, influencing attitudes and behaviours within the sphere of spirituality and daily life (Fowler 1974).

In addition to characterising the feelings themselves, it is essential to consider the context in which they arise and are experienced (Vining 1987). Religious feelings have the capacity to permeate not only the personal sphere but also connect to a significant social aspect; they can be felt collectively and expressed within religious communities (Tatala, Wojtasiński, and Janowski 2023). Shared rituals, prayers, and religious ceremonies provide opportunities for the collective experience of profound spiritual feelings. This process simultaneously strengthens bonds within these communities and fosters a sense of unity among their members (Tatala 2000). Various religious practices, including attending Mass, participating in rituals, or paying homage in special forms of worship, are capable of eliciting intense religious feelings in participants (Bergin et al. 1988). During such ceremonies, the entire religious community comes together to share in the experience of feelings directly related to deep religious convictions and the sacred. It is worth emphasising that rituals play a significant role within religious practices, enhancing spiritual connections among individuals (Spilka, Shaver, and Kirkpatrick 1985).

Another essential aspect in the context of religious feelings, in addition to their quality and environment, is the ability to effectively manage and regulate them (Koenig 2006). Religious feelings play a crucial role in shaping individual identity (Walesa 2005). They contribute to religious identification, introducing elements of devotion, love, and engagement within religious practices and faith in the sacred and God. Strong religious feelings deepen the bond with faith and the religious community, simultaneously influencing spiritual identity. In religiosity, these feelings are often associated with specific sets of values and norms. Well-managed and utilised religious feelings, such as feelings of guilt, repentance, or spiritual shock, can play a key role in decision-making and shaping one’s attitude towards other people and the surrounding world (Walesa and Tatala 2020).

Religious feelings tend to co-occur and interact with each other, forming internal groups, families, or even intricate combinations of feelings (Walesa 2005). It is important to note that they are not detached or manifest in a pure form but are always embedded in specific life and psychological contexts. Simultaneously, the study of religious feelings faces the challenge of precise nomenclature. For example, the feeling of religious fascination may take various forms of experience or even denote different types of feelings. This diversity can result from different origins of these experiences (Tatala 2000). Another example, according to Allport and Ross (1967), is the fact that there is no single, unique type of religious emotion. On the contrary, there is a richness of diverse experiences centred around the religious object. This diverse array of experiences creates a unique structure of religious feelings which develop within contexts related to the sacred or spirituality. It is essential to understand that these diverse feelings do not function in isolation from each other; they interact, enriching and shaping the overall spiritual life (Tatala and Mańkowska 2015).

Religious feelings take on a religious dimension due to their specific object – the Sacred. They constitute one of the aspects of the structure of religiosity, defined by the personal and positive relationship between a person and God (Walesa 2005).

Religious feelings are not static but undergo changes with individual development and spirituality. Individuals may experience different religious feelings at different life stages, depending on their experiences, beliefs, and challenges. Life circumstances and one’s spiritual evolution also play a role. The development of religious feelings, their intensity, and nature is influenced by various factors, such as upbringing, religious education, relationships with other members of the religious community, life experiences, and personal spiritual aspirations (Hyde 2010).

This article aims to analyse the psychological characteristics of adults, focusing on identifying the features and processes conducive to the development of religious feelings. In our view, adulthood is defined by several key indicators: (1) finalising education, (2) achieving professional and financial independence, (3) separating from the family, (4) moving to a new place of residence, (5) entering into a marital relationship, (6) transitioning into parenthood, (7) choosing a career path, (8) taking responsibility for oneself and others, especially children and wards, (9) making significant life decisions and accepting their consequences such as choosing one’s vocation, (10) planning for the future, and (11) having stable prospects (Tatala and Walesa 2016). When discussing adulthood, the age of 18 is generally considered its starting point. Nevertheless, the period between 18 and 24 is often referred to as young adulthood or adolescence (Arnett 2000). True adulthood begins after the stage of young adulthood, approximately at the age of 25. Certainly, age boundaries may vary depending on other criteria, such as biological, intellectual, or emotional maturity (Michalska et al. 2016).

In proper adulthood, three main periods can be distinguished: early, middle, and late adulthood. Each of these periods exhibits characteristic features dominating at that time. While certain psychological elements, including feelings, are present in each of the mentioned periods, they manifest in a specific and unique way for each stage. One example of such psychological phenomenon is emotional wisdom (Walesa, Tatala, and Rydz 2023). Early adulthood focuses mainly on existential matters of real life, such as marriage, work, or home. In late adulthood, emotional wisdom encompasses reflection on one’s entire life and the associated challenges, including preparing to say goodbye to various aspects of one’s existence as well as life itself – the awareness of transitioning to a different state of being (Tatala and Walesa 2016).

Reception of religious feelings – original research

In the aforementioned description of religious feelings, certain overarching and coherent characteristics can be discerned. Regardless of the specifics of the description, it can be affirmed that all feelings can be classified based on positive or negative qualities. Feelings emerge in a broader context which includes individuals, their environment, and God; this context can influence behaviours of a religious nature (Walesa and Tatala 2020). Furthermore, various regulatory strategies exist to cope with the intensity of feelings. Therefore, it is justified to consider the quality of religious feelings (both positive and negative), their context, and strategies of their regulation as indispensable elements in describing the phenomenon of religious feelings. Such a structure allows for control over the analysis of religious feelings, although research from this perspective has been lacking thus far (Paloutzian and Park 2021). Particularly intriguing is the study of self-assessment and perception of these aspects by religious individuals who actively participate in the life of a religious community.

The primary goal of this research project was to answer questions regarding semantic categories identified on the basis of interview data, concerning the positive and negative qualities of experienced religious feelings, the situational context in which these feelings occur, and strategies of their regulation. In line with reports from the literature (Walesa, Tatala, and Rydz 2023) suggesting that with the passage of time, the experience of feelings transforms into more mature reception, potential differences between individuals in early and late adulthood were examined. The possibility of building a model to predict a developmental stage based on semantic subcategories was also verified.

Method

Participant and procedure

Participants

A total of 160 individuals, 80 in the period of early adulthood (M = 29.21; SD = 4.41) and 80 in the period of late adulthood (M = 67.73; SD = 6.51), participated in the research; there was an equal split between women and men. The developmental stages were delineated based on Walesa’s proposal, which suggests that early adulthood spans the ages of 25–39, while late adulthood comprises the age of 60 and above (Walesa, Tatala, and Rydz 2023). Notably, the deliberate exclusion of middle adulthood aimed to accentuate clear distinctions between these two groups, recognising the transitional phase between them. In addition to the variable of age, the selection of the sample took into account the religiosity level of the respondents. Typically, individuals associated with Catholic Church communities participated in the research. These individuals were identified as religious by competent judges, who included clergy, catechists, and Catholic community leaders. The designation of these judges as ‘competent’ indicated their expertise and authority within the context of religious assessment, ensuring validity and reliability of the criterion of religiosity for participant selection. We ensured that the competent judges possessed formal education in religiosity, bolstering credibility of their assessment. Furthermore, the judges were informed about the research objectives to mitigate any potential biases stemming from social desirability tendencies. This proactive approach aimed at preventing the judges from inadvertently influencing participant selection based on societal approval, ensuring the impartiality and integrity of the findings of study.

Research procedure

The conducted research was qualitative in nature. The utilisation of the Piagetian exploratory-critical interview method in the conducted research was methodologically justified by its aptitude for delving into the complex and multi-faceted nature of religiosity (Piaget 1922, 1928). Traditional quantitative measures often fall short in capturing the depth and intricacies of religious experiences due to their inherent limitations in addressing subjective beliefs, values, and lived experiences. The Piagetian method, rooted in cognitive developmental theory, provides a framework for analysing religious beliefs, attitudes, and experiences through open-ended questioning and reflective dialogue.

The exploratory aspect of the Piagetian method encouraged participants to articulate their thoughts and feelings freely, fostering a rich and nuanced understanding of their religious worldview (Rydz et al. 2023). Furthermore, the critical component of the Piagetian method prompted participants to reflect on their beliefs and experiences, encouraging self-examination and introspection. Conducting interviews individually further enhanced the validity and reliability of the data. Individual interviews provided a personalised and confidential space for participants to express their beliefs and experiences authentically, minimising social desirability bias and fostering open communication.

The respondents were informed about the purpose of the research, they were assured of the anonymity and voluntary nature of participation, and were informed about the option to withdraw at any stage of the study. Prior to the interviews, respondents completed a demographic data sheet regarding age, gender, place of residence, education, affiliation with a specific religious community, and frequency of Holy Communion. The study concluded with a summary interview, addressing any questions which might have arisen during the course of the meeting.

When interpreting the results, it is crucial to contextualise this study within the broader historical and cultural landscape of Polish Catholicism, particularly following the Communist regime. This context underscores the significance of how religious experiences have evolved and been shaped over time, reflecting societal shifts and challenges faced by the Catholic community in Poland. However, the research design adopted a cross-sectional approach, considering the limited influence of historical cohort effects, which might have necessitated longitudinal exploration. This methodological decision allows for a comprehensive snapshot of religious experiences within a specific timeframe, facilitating nuanced interpretations of the findings (Bengtson et al. 2015; Shulgin, Zinkina, and Korotayev 2019).

Measures

A questionnaire consisting of a set of Piagetian exploratory-critical interview questions about religious feelings of adults was used. Its construction was based on Walesa’s integral-developmental concept of religiosity (2005). The following questions were asked:

1. What religious feelings accompany you in your daily life?

2. What negative feelings accompany you in your relationship with God?

3. In what situations do you experience religious fascination?

4. How does religious hope affect your behaviour?

The questions operationalise the discussed theoretical components of religious feelings: positive qualities of feelings (question 1), negative qualities of feelings (question 2), situational context (question 3), and regulatory strategies (question 4). The proposed categories are directly linked to the traditional description of feelings in terms of their quality, situational context, and coping strategies. A similar cognitive approach has been utilised, for instance, in the case of emotional intelligence (Mayer and Salovey 1993).

Psychometric evaluation of the research tool

The obtained research results were categorised, enabling statistical analyses of the collected data. The psychometric value of the applied research method was assessed using the test-retest reliability measure test-retest. The second examination was conducted after two weeks with a group of 40 individuals. Five competent judges assessed the degree of similarity of responses from the first (Time 1) and second (Time 2) study wave on a scale from 0 to 100. Judges were in agreement in their evaluations (no significant differences were found between results from Time 1 and Time 2). This indicates the stability of the obtained results. The use of the non-parametric Kendall’s W concordance coefficient confirmed the degree of agreement in evaluations issued by the competent judges (p < .001; Table 1).

Table 1. Comparison of concordance in assessments made by five competent judges (n = 40) on the similarity of responses between the first and second study wave.

Question number	Kendall’s W	χ^2	df	p<	Percentage of explained variance
Q1	.66	127.71	39	.001	32
Q2	.62	120.85	39	.001	28
Q3	.61	119.42	39	.001	27
Q4	.65	127.30	39	.001	32

Statistical analyses

Results

Method of processing data obtained through interviews

The obtained empirical material allowed for the identification of 18 subcategories of religious feelings within the framework of four main categories. Regarding statements related to the positive qualities of religious feelings, five subcategories were distinguished: (1) reflexivity, (2) multiple feelings, (3) trust, (4) joy, and (5) love, all of which expressed positive experiences related to God. The subcategory of reflexivity included statements containing deeper reflections, with respondents mentioning religious events without specifying any feelings, for example: ‘I always think positively about faith and God. Sometimes I feel guilty that there is too little prayer in my life’ [24 M 29]. The subcategory of multiple feelings pertained to statements containing several, sometimes more complex, multifaceted feelings experienced simultaneously. For example: ‘I experience peace, joy, contentment, self-assurance, love’ [30 M 32]. In the trust subcategory statements of respondents expressing a sense of reliance on God, a belief in God’s power and omnipotence were found: ‘Above all, trust and consent for God to lead my life’ [16 M 26]. Statements in the subcategory of joy referred to the experienced satisfaction which individuals felt in their connection with God: ‘Sometimes there is such a day when I feel such peace, inner joy, everything falls into place so nicely. I’m so happy and cheerful, and then I know it’s because of God’ [83 M 64]. The last subcategory, love, related to actions stemming from love for God: ‘The feeling of love is probably obvious because the Catholic faith involves love for God and love for His work. For me, this also connects with respect for others. You should love and respect every human being’ [139 M 69].

Six subcategories of statements related to negative qualities of experienced religious feelings were identified: (1) anger, (2) reflexivity, (3) lack of negative feelings, (4) transformation, (5) grief, and (6) multiple feelings. Anger in the context of religious feelings was triggered by encountering obstacles on the path to achieving a specific goal, accompanied by strong tension and attempts to suppress negative religious experiences. This is shown in the following example statement: ‘I feel angry sometimes, a sense of pride that I also know what is good for me. Anger is when things don’t go my way, and that’s when my human weaknesses come out’ [76 M 79]. The subcategory of reflexivity, similarly to how it was portrayed in the category of positive qualities, involved deeper reflections, encompassing religious events without specifying particular feelings: ‘There are many demands that are sometimes challenging to adapt to in today’s world. Sometimes I feel limited or have a dilemma about how to resolve a situation to be in harmony with reality and my conscience’ [5 F 27]. The subcategory of lack of negative feelings indicated minimal involvement of such feelings, expressed in: ‘Negative feelings towards God?! I don’t really experience such feelings’ [85 F 65]. The transformation subcategory included statements which initially triggered feelings such as sadness, fear, or rebellion against God. However, over time, these feelings transformed into positive ones, instilling sense of security in the relationship with God, trust, or love, e.g. ‘People often blame God for their fate, but I know that God wants the best for us’ [47 F 37]. The grief subcategory was distinguished on the basis of statements expressing loss and being unable to reconcile with the situation, accompanied by sadness and depression. The subcategory of grief manifested as reluctance or resentment towards God. For example: ‘Sometimes I feel grief towards God, especially after something very unfortunate happens to me. Especially after my mother’s death. Why, if God took my dad so quickly, does He also take my mom?’ [89 F 64]. The multiple feelings subcategory signified the variety of different negative experiences. A wide range of negative religious feelings included sadness, grief, guilt, anger, or doubt in God’s love: ‘Doubt sometimes arises – whether faith really makes sense, whether God truly exists, whether the believing person will be rewarded. And sometimes, I admit, anger at how demanding our faith is’[22 F 28].

Analysing the contextual situational data led to the identification of three subcategories: (1) intellectual evaluation, (2) religious practices, and (3) engagement in religious situations, indicating the quality of emotional relationships between respondents and their internal and external environments. The intellectual evaluation subcategory involved the rational processing of religious situations experienced by respondents, reflection, and contemplation: ‘When I pray for something and it works out, I’m satisfied in a way because I know that God listened to me, that I managed to achieve something with His help, and that I’m simply important to Him’ [24 F 38]. The religious practices subcategory included statements which highlighted the participation of respondents in the activities of the community of believers, such as attending services, retreats, and adoration: “Mostly during retreats in silence, while reading the Holy Scriptures or religious literature, or at a good sermon/conference when the priest calmly and clearly explains the truths of faith and their practical application. I think then, ‘Oh, you can really live by the Word of God; it’s so practical!’’ [41 F 36]. The engagement in religious situations subcategory contained statements indicating the zeal and enthusiasm of respondents for their religious lives: ‘I appreciate that God blesses me with something beautiful, the love of my loved ones, beautiful nature. When I look at my life, in which God gently led me out of various states and situations; when I observe something tender; when I pray deeply or adore Him; when I receive Holy Communion; when I pray to God together with my fiancé’ [29 F 26].

Analysing the data in terms of regulatory strategies of religious feelings, such as religious hope, allowed for the identification of four subcategories: (1) secular life issues, (2) religious life issues, (3) secular and religious life issues, and (4) orientation towards eternity. The first subcategory, secular life issues, referred to statements in which respondents mentioned hope as regulatory power of their actions, motivating them to set and achieve goals, as evidenced by the following statement: ‘Hope gives me a sense of purpose, adds strength to my life, helps me make difficult decisions’ [4 F 27]. In the case of the subcategory of religious life issues, statements of respondents indicated events with references to their religious beliefs: ‘For me, religious hope is a personal experience of faith. I am also chosen, and religious hope keeps me convinced that what has been promised to me is truly happening and will continue to happen’ [56 M 34]. The subcategory of secular and religious life issues, encompassed the combination of both secular and religious themes in the statements of respondents: ‘I try to do good, help selflessly, be kind. I trust that God sees everything I do, and that’s enough’ [15 F 27]. The last subcategory, orientation towards eternity, related to comments in which respondents expressed hope of achieving eternal life: ‘We are all constantly on the path to holiness, to the kingdom of heaven. We have hope for life after death, that what is here and now is not everything. Something wonderful and indescribable is waiting for us’ [75 M 53].

To conclude, in analysing the data, several overarching categories emerged, each shedding light on the multifaceted nature of religious feelings. Within the category of positive qualities, participants exhibited a remarkable degree of reflexivity, demonstrating introspective awareness and self-reflection regarding their religious experiences. Additionally, they expressed a diverse array of positive feelings, demonstrating complexity of their religious sentiments. This included a strong sense of trust and confidence in their religious beliefs and practices, along with feelings of joy and contentment often associated with religious engagement. Furthermore, feelings of love and compassion were commonly reported, underscoring the emotional richness inherent to religious experiences.

Within the negative qualities category, participants occasionally reported experiencing negative feelings such as anger or frustration in certain contexts. Interestingly, reflexivity also emerged as a subcategory within negative feelings, suggesting introspection and self-awareness regarding negative religious experiences. Additionally, while some respondents reported a lack of negative feelings in their religious experiences, others described undergoing transformative processes or experiencing feelings of grief or sadness in connection with religious events.

Situational context played a significant role in shaping emotional experiences. Intellectual evaluation was evident as respondents engaged in a critical analysis of religious concepts or beliefs. Religious practices, such as rituals or ceremonies, were described as influential in eliciting emotional responses, as was active participation in religious events or gatherings. Finally, regulatory strategies encompassed various approaches. Participants discussed how their religious beliefs and practices intersected with their everyday secular experiences, and how they utilised specific religious practices or beliefs to regulate their feelings. Some individuals also navigated emotional challenges by integrating both secular and religious perspectives into their coping strategies. Moreover, adopting an orientation towards eternity – drawing comfort from beliefs in the afterlife or spiritual realms – was reported as a means of coping with difficult feelings or life events. Below is a model chart illustrating the identified categories and subcategories of religious feelings (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Categories and subcategories of religious feelings.

The research results, organised into four main categories, were presented in subsequent tables. The analyses included calculating the overall significance level of the observed effect with the Cramer’s V measure and the significance of differences for nominal scales with the Bonferroni’s correction.

A significant relationship was found between the subcategories of positive qualities of religious feelings and age, Cramer’s V = .35, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni’s correction revealed that differences between early and late adulthood were primarily observed for the subcategories of multiple feelings and trust. Statements from respondents in early adulthood were characterised by a prevalence of multiple feelings. It was observed that respondents in late adulthood used the subcategory of trust more frequently than those in early adulthood (Table 2).

Table 2. Diversity of occurrences of the subcategory of positive qualities of religious feelings in early and late adulthood.

			Developmental stage
	Categories		Early adulthood	Late adulthood	Overall
Positive qualities	Reflexivity	n	9a	6a	15
		%	60.0%	40.0%	100.0%
	Multiple feelings	n	36a	17b	53
		%	67.9%	32.1%	100.0%
	Trust	n	7a	27b	34
		%	20.6%	79.4%	100.0%
	Joy	n	9a	8a	17
		%	52.9%	47.1%	100.0%
	Love	n	19a	22a	41
		%	46.3%	53.7%	100.0%
	Overall	n	80	80	160
		%	50.0%	50.0%	100.0%

Note. Indexes a, b represent pairs of comparisons significantly differing in terms of occurrence frequency, considering column proportions (Z-test).

The same letter in the subscript indicates a subset of the age category, the proportions of which do not significantly differ from each other at the .05 level. This note pertains to Tables 3–5 as well.

Table 3. Diversity of occurrences of the subcategory of negative qualities of religious feelings in early and late adulthood.

			Developmental stage
	Categories		Early adulthood	Late adulthood	Overall
Negative qualities	Anger	n	23a	10b	33
		%	69.7%	30.3%	100.0%
	Reflexivity	n	9a	22b	31
		%	29.0%	71.0%	100.0%
	Lack of negative feelings	n	14a	19a	33
		%	42.4%	57.6%	100.0%
	Transformation	n	7a	19b	26
		%	26.9%	73.1%	100.0%
	Grief	n	6a	5a	11
		%	54.5%	45.5%	100.0%
	Multiple feelings	n	21a	5b	26
		%	80.8%	19.2%	100.0%
	Overall	n	80	80	160
		%	50.0%	50.0%	100.0%

Note. Indexes a, b represent pairs of comparisons significantly differing in terms of occurrence frequency, considering column proportions (Z-test).

Table 4. Diversity of occurrences of the subcategory of situational context of religious feelings in early and late adulthood.

			Developmental stage
	Categories		Early adulthood	Late adulthood	Overall
Situational context	Reflexivity	n	32a	10b	42
		%	76.2%	23.8%	100.0%
	Religious practices	n	29a	31a	60
		%	48.3%	51.7%	100.0%
	Engagement in religious situations	n	19a	39b	58
		%	32.8%	67.2%	100.0%
	Overall	n	80	80	160
		%	50.0%	50.0%	100.0%

Note. Indexes a, b represent pairs of comparisons significantly differing in terms of occurrence frequency, considering column proportions (Z-test).

Table 5. Diversity of occurrences of the subcategory of regulatory strategies in early and late adulthood.

Categories			Developmental stage		Overall
			Early adulthood	Late adulthood
Regulatory strategies	Secular life issues	n	29a	16b	45
		%	64.4%	35.6%	100.0%
	Religious life issues	n	3a	11b	14
		%	21.4%	78.6%	100.0%
	Secular and religious life issues	n	37a	16b	53
		%	69.8%	30.2%	100.0%
	Orientation towards eternity	n	11a	37b	48
		%	22.9%	77.1%	100.0%
	Overall	n	80	80	160
		%	50.0%	50.0%	100.0%

Note. Indexes a, b represent pairs of comparisons significantly differing in terms of occurrence frequency, considering column proportions (Z-test).

A significant relationship was found between the subcategory of negative qualities of religious feelings and age, Cramer’s V = .41, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni’s correction revealed that differences between early and late adulthood were primarily observed for anger, reflexivity, and multiple feelings. Statements from respondents in early adulthood were characterised by a prevalence of anger and multiple feelings. Reflexivity was more frequently associated with statements from respondents in late adulthood (Table 3).

A significant relationship was found between the subcategory of situational context of religious feelings and age, Cramer’s V = .34, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni’s correction revealed that differences between early and late adulthood were primarily observed for general reflection and engagement in religious situations. Statements from respondents in early adulthood were characterised by the prevalence of reflection. In contrast, engagement in religious situations was more frequently associated with statements from respondents in late adulthood (Table 4).

A significant relationship was found between the subcategory of regulatory strategies and age, Cramer’s V = .44, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni’s correction revealed differences between early and late adulthood for all the identified subcategories, including secular life issues, religious life issues, both everyday secular and religious life issues, and orientation towards eternity. Statements from respondents in early adulthood were characterised by both secular and religious life issues. In contrast, directly addressing religious life and orientation towards religious life was more frequently associated with statements from respondents in late adulthood.

These findings suggest that there are significant differences in how respondents in different stages of adulthood regulate their religious feelings, with younger adults often focusing on the intersection of everyday life and religion, while older adults tend to concentrate more on religious matters and orientate towards eternity.

Neural network analysis: multilayer perceptron

The second part of the analysis aimed at verifying the hypothesis regarding the prediction of the age group based on participant responses. To achieve this, neural networks with multilayer perceptron statistics were used. The application of this technique allows for validating our previous research and proposals, indicating the potential utility of the identified categories in this prediction. By employing advanced computational techniques, such as neural network analysis, we can further elucidate the complex interplay between religious feelings and demographic variables, contributing to a deeper understanding of the developmental trajectories of religiosity across the lifespan. The sample (n = 160) was divided into two subgroups: a training set (n = 112) and a testing set (n = 48). The model included 18 extracted subcategories within four semantic categories related to religious feelings as predictors (factors). The analysis framework is presented below (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Neural network model for religious feelings in early and late adulthood.

The applied analysis demonstrated that for the training set, the predictive accuracy of the model was 79.5%. The effectiveness on the testing set resulted in 92.7% of the correct assignments.

In the final step of the analysis, a classification matrix was created to verify the differentiation of correct assignments in the division into early and late adulthood. The analysis showed a comparable level of effectiveness of the neural network model for both assignments (Table 6).

Table 6. Classification matrix.

		Sample predicted
Sample		Early adulthood	Late adulthood	% of correct classifications
Training	Early adulthood	46	11	80.7%
	Late adulthood	12	43	78.2%
	Overall %	51.8%	48.2%	79.5%
Testing	Early adulthood	21	2	91.3%
	Late adulthood	2	23	92.0%
	Overall %	47.9%	52.1%	91.7%

Note. Dependent variable: age.

In the multilayer perceptron analysis, evaluating the effectiveness of the model in predicting correct outcomes based on provided data is conducted with the analysis of the correct assignments expressed in percentages. The percentages in the above table should be understood as the ratio of the number of correctly assigned cases to the total number of cases in the testing set. The testing set indicates a high percentage of correct predictions, which can, in turn, be interpreted in terms of the high effectiveness of the model in predicting outcomes. In other words, the findings highlight the intricate relationship between religiosity and developmental stages across the lifespan. By discerning specific emotional categories associated with different age groups, it becomes feasible to develop predictive models which anticipate the age of the individuals based on their reported religious feelings.

Discussion

The development of religious feelings is a result of an individual upbringing, cultural tradition, and broader social context (Tatala and Mańkowska 2015). It manifests as a lifelong transformation from a high level of diversity to an increasing consolidation (Walesa 2005). This process, on one hand, results of religious experiences, which contribute to a more subtle experience of specific feelings, and on the other hand, a response to events that trigger them (Tatala and Walesa 2021). The aim of this project was to systematise four dimensions of religious feelings: positive and negative qualities of religious feelings, the context of their occurrence, and regulatory strategies. The study incorporated an exploratory-critical interview to examine the emotional experiences of respondents (Lister 1990). The analysis revealed several characteristics for each dimension of religious feelings.

Within the category of positive qualities of religious feelings, the following were distinguished: reflexivity, multiple feelings, trust, joy, and love. For negative qualities of feelings, the following were identified: anger, reflexivity, lack of negative feelings, transformation, grief, and multiple feelings. Regarding situational context, intellectual evaluation, religious practices, and engagement in religious situations were distinguished. For regulatory strategies, the following were identified: secular life issues, religious life issues, secular and religious life issues, and orientation towards eternity.

A common feature of responses given by participants in early adulthood to all interview questions was related to the diversity and variety of experienced feelings, both positive and negative ones. Perhaps this was associated with the ongoing process of hierarchization and assigning importance to these feelings, whereas in late adulthood, this process was often already completed or worked through (Erikson 1993; Walesa, Tatala, and Rydz 2023). Respondents in late adulthood often based their responses on their core values. This observation led to a significant differentiation between the two age groups in terms of the subcategories of religious feelings. Hence, participants in early adulthood were significantly more likely to express multiplicity of religious feelings compared to those in late adulthood. In contrast, respondents in late adulthood were characterised by a straightforward focus on religiosity, i.e. experiencing trust and love. Experiencing these feelings in late adulthood may result from general developmental tendencies which occur at this stage of life(Bengtson et al. 2015; Shulgin, Zinkina, and Korotayev 2019). Respondents in late adulthood, as they witness the passage of time, are highly motivated and effectively monitor and choose feelings to optimise their behaviour depending on the context (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, and Charles 1999). A process involving a review of one’s lifetime happens in the final years. Reminiscence of the past becomes a significant element in a person’s functioning then (Filip, Lukavská, and Poláčková Šolcová 2020). The purpose of this process is to prepare for impending death, which, in the case of believers, helps in alleviating stress through religious and emotion-based coping strategies (Upenieks 2023; Zembylas 2023). In turn, in early adulthood, multiple feelings were associated with considering different perspectives and engagements, which also supports effective functioning at this stage of life (Czyżowska and Gurba 2022). Regarding negative qualities of religious feelings, it was observed that respondents in early adulthood often used less adaptive feelings compared to those in late adulthood. When asked about negative feelings, they were more inclined to express anger, while those in late adulthood leaned towards retrospection and reflexivity. Early adulthood is a time of encountering conflicting views, which can lead to moments of doubt about still evolving value system (Van Cappellen et al. 2016). The divergences related to different religious perspectives can consequently lead to a varied range of feelings, including negative ones (Da Silva et al. 2017). In terms of situational context, participants in early adulthood were guided by intellectual and rational processing of experienced situations, while respondents in late adulthood were influenced by engagement in religious situations. This is likely due to a reflection on life and relating it to a broader social and situational context (Kielar-Turska 2018). The differences between respondents in early and late adulthood regarding regulatory strategies were primarily associated with a preference for addressing secular life issues in the former group, and religious issues and orientation towards eternity in the latter group. This aligns with Walesa’s model, which suggests a transition from secular affairs to spiritual and religious matters over the course of life (Tatala and Walesa 2021).

What is the theoretical significance of the observed effects? The differences between early and late adulthood may result from the consolidation and reflection on one’s life in relation to oneself, the environment, and the relationship with God (Tatala, Wojtasiński, and Janowski 2023). One possible explanation for this phenomenon is an analogy between the development of religious feelings and the development of emotional intelligence based on a greater number of experiences, enriching the crystallised aspect of general intelligence (Wilczewski et al. 2020). The precision of perception, management of emotional states and religious feelings is likely to be more mature in respondents in late adulthood (Janowski et al. 2020). This observation is consistent with the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen, Fung, and Charles 2003; Carstensen, Isaacowitz, and Charles 1999), which posits that individuals in late adulthood exhibit a higher level of distinctiveness in expressed emotional information in comparison to those in early adulthood (Carstensen and Turk-Charles 1994). This has been confirmed in several studies, even though their focus was on the emotional development of adults.

In the case of the qualities of feelings and strategies of their regulation, it can be observed that the ability to manage feelings is higher in late adulthood than in early adulthood (Kliegel, Jäger, and Phillips 2007). These effects were reflected in the neural network analysis, which allowed for predicting membership in the group of early or late adulthood with a predictability exceeding 90%. Therefore, collectively, responses to questions provided more information than when they were considered separately, which can be indirectly interpreted in terms of the consistency and high effectiveness of the proposed four-dimensional model of religious feelings. The ability to predict age based on religious feelings shows the enduring influence of religiosity throughout various stages of life, emphasising its significance as a fundamental aspect of human experience which evolves and manifests differently across different age cohorts.

In addition to the knowledge gained in the conducted study, there are certain limitations which should be considered when planning a replication or continuation of our research. An issue inherent in interviews is the limited number of questions that can be asked in a reasonable amount of time; therefore, future studies could benefit from using a questionnaire method to complement the interview data (Harris and Brown 2010). Another issue is a lack of control over the level of emotional intelligence of the participants, which could be included in the explanation of the observed differences. Finally, cross-sectional studies do not answer queries about causality, so it is impossible to determine the potential impact of age on the development of religious feelings (Bengtson et al. 2015). The decision to use a cross-sectional study design in the present research was motivated by its main goal, which was to verify the four-aspect model of religious feelings; however, considering age groups served as an additional validation. Due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, we are unable to conclusively determine whether younger individuals would eventually reach a similar level of religiosity as older individuals. Only a longitudinal cohort study would allow for such insight. Also, an important restraint of the study lies in the context within which the research was conducted: interpreting the results should take into account the historical and cultural background of Polish Catholicism, particularly following the collapse of the Communist regime. The experiences of late adults in Poland, who were youth and young adults during an atheist regime and witnessed its collapse, are significant factors that may influence their religious beliefs and attitudes (Requena and Stanek 2013). The Church played an unusual role during this period and continues to hold a particular place in Polish society. Despite not being directly controlled for in our study, these historical and cultural factors provide context for understanding the religious landscape of the cohort studied, contributing to a deeper interpretation of our findings. The final limitation pertains to one of the categories identified in our analysis, namely ‘multiple feelings’. We categorised responses in this group to denote the expression of numerous positive feelings, however, this approach may have overlooked their complexity. For instance, some participants might have experienced a combination of positive and negative qualities of religious feelings simultaneously, which our categorisation did not account for. This limitation suggests a potential for a more nuanced understanding of emotional experiences in future research, possibly through the incorporation of additional categories or a more fine-grained analysis of emotional responses.

Religious feelings can change dynamically over a short period of life, so intensive longitudinal studies, such as diary methods, could reveal interesting aspects of religious feelings. Interview data could also be subjected to linguistic analyses e.g. using the LIWC program (Francuz, Szymańska, and Wojtasiński 2019), although currently, this would require modifying and adapting the tool for studying religious phenomena. In the future, it would be worthwhile to verify the perception of aspects of religiosity other than religious feelings. Walesa suggests, among others: religious awareness, religious decisions, or bond with the community of believers. Expanding research based on interviews would likely allow for a more holistic understanding of individual religiosity.

Psychological’ interest in religious life arises from the fact that experiencing a relationship with God occurs through one’s psychology in which the emotional sphere cannot be ignored. Its role is significant at every stage of human development. The process of developing religious feelings is interesting but difficult to capture (Rydz, Walesa, and Tatala 2017). The proposal to present religious feelings in a four-dimensional model allows for the systematisation of the discussed phenomenon. Our research suggests that religious feelings do not occur in seclusion from the context but are associated with many factors, such as individual dispositions, the environment, and belief in God. They manifest themselves in various qualities, both positive and negative, which highlights their complexity and diversity of forms.

The study findings carry significant practical implications and add substantial value to our understanding of psychology of religion. By categorising semantic subgroups derived from expressions of religious feelings, encompassing positive and negative qualities, situational context, and regulatory strategies, we gained deeper insights into the dynamic nature of religious experiences across the lifespan. This nuanced understanding can inform therapeutic interventions, pastoral care, and spiritual guidance tailored to individuals at different stages of life. Moreover, the identification of specific subcategories and their predictive power in defining the stage of development offers potential applications in personalised counselling and religious education programmes. By recognising the multifaceted nature of religious feelings and their links with various factors, including individual characteristics and beliefs as well as environmental influences we are better equipped to address the complexities of human spirituality. This research underscores the importance of integrating psychological perspectives into religious studies and calls for interdisciplinary collaboration to foster a holistic approach to spiritual well-being.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The approval of the Commission for Research Ethics of the Institute of Psychology of the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin was obtained (nr KEBN_20/2023).

Informed consent from participants

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the present study are part of a larger project related to the development of interviews concerning additional parameters in light of Walesa’s (2005) conceptual framework, and therefore are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Małgorzata Tatala

Małgorzata Tatala is an associate professor at the Institute of Psychology, the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland. Her academic work focuses on developmental psychology, psychology of religion and spirituality. Currently she runs research programmes which centre around prayer, religious symbols and religious feelings.

Marcin Wojtasiński

Marcin Wojtasiński is a doctor of psychology with a keen interest in information processing, attention, and prediction. He is currently employed as a research assistant at the Institute of Psychology within the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin.

Alina Rynio

Alina Rynio is a professor, PhD, theologian, psychologist, and academic teacher at the Institute of Pedagogy, the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland. The main field of her research is the analysis of goals of education in religious and moral pedagogy and the development of theory of education, Christian pedagogy, and the pedagogy of selected Catholic movements and associations. She undertakes research on the anthropological and theological foundations of the integral education, selected theories of education, and the Catholic school.