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Abstract
Studies of Indo–British relations in the 1950s have been usually dominated by the personalities of Jawaharlal Nehru and, after him, VK Krishna Menon. This article instead focuses on Vijayalakshmi Pandit and her tenure as India’s High-Commissioner in London. Pandit came to London having served as Nehru’s envoy to the Soviet Union, the USA and the United Nations. Based on government records and private papers in India, Britain and America, this article shows that her time in London offers insights into the wider context of changes in Indo–British relations and presents her High-Commissionership as a microcosm of the inter-governmental relations.
Acknowledgements
I thank the two anonymous reviewers for their encouragement and suggestions. I am also grateful to Prof. Ian Talbot for his comments and support.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
[1] Quoted in CitationGuthrie, Madame Ambassador, 162.
[2] 19 July 1951, Nehru to CD Deshmukh, Nehru Papers post-1947 (2nd Instalment) Correspondence File No. 77; quoted in CitationBrown, Nehru, 247.
[3] See CitationSingh, Limits of Influence; CitationMcGarr, Cold War in South Asia; also see CitationMcGarr, ‘India’s Rasputin’; and CitationMcGarr, ‘Serious Menace to Security’.
[4] See the biographies of Nehru by Michael Brecher, Sarvepalli Gopal, Frank Moraes and Stanley Wolpert.
[5]CitationBrown, Nehru, 248, 378; and CitationGeorge, Krishna Menon, 167.
[6]CitationPandit, Scope of Happiness, 286.
[7] For example, CitationGuthrie, Madame Ambassador; CitationBrittain, Envoy Extraordinary; and CitationAndrews, Lamp for India.
[8] See CitationGuha, India After Gandhi.
[9] See CitationBhagavan, Peacemakers.
[10] See CitationMoore, Making the New Commonwealth; and CitationSingh, Limits of Influence.
[11] See the works of Paul McGarr.
[12] Vijayalakshmi Pandit to Jawaharlal Nehru, 8 July 1955, Subject File Serial No. 62, Vijayalakshmi Pandit Papers (1st Instalment), Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), New Delhi.
[13] 1 June 1949, FO’s note on ‘India in the UN-1949’, FO 371/78787, The National Archives (TNA), Kew.
[14] 15 September 1952, New Delhi to London, SA/14/3/, No. 148 and 16 October 1952, New Delhi to CRO, UNO/39B, DO 35/6964, TNA.
[15] 29 June 1953, Scott to Fowler, DO 35/10622.
[16] 7 August 1953, CO to CRO, 144/195/03, DO 35/6964.
[17] 14 December 1953, Hankinson to Liesching, 2271/88/53, DO 35/10622.
[18] March 1954, CRO’s note, DO 35/10622.
[19] 17 February 1954, Gladwyn Jebb to Home, No. 3 and 9 November 1954, Fairfax to Home, 2277/62/154, DO 35/10622.
[20] Subject File Serial No. 24, BG Kher Papers (IV–X Instalments), NMML.
[21] See CitationWalton, Empire of Secrets; and CitationMcGarr, ‘India’s Rasputin’.
[22] 20 and 26 November 1946, Pandit to Nehru, Subject File Serial No. 47, Pandit Papers (1st Instalment).
[23] Pandit to Nehru, 8 July 1955, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[24] 15 February 1954, Selwyn Lloyd to Menon, SELO 5/20, Selwyn-Lloyd Papers (Churchill Archives Centre).
[25] 16 May 1954, Paper on ‘Specific Problems with the UK’, Box 8, Folder 4 (General Foreign Policy [2]), Series 3: White House Memoranda (Subseries 3A: Correspondence and Meetings), (MCO 18), Dulles Papers.
[26] 10 December 1954, CIGS Field Marshal Sir John Harding’s Report, DO 35/6530; in March 1955, General Mosley Mayne reported that the ‘present Pakistan PM likes the Americans’, DO 35/6531.
[27] 25 January 1955, CRO’s note, DO 35/8876.
[28] Nehru to Pandit, No. 281-PMH/55, 5 March 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers (1st Instalment).
[29] Pandit to Nehru, 3-PS/55, 28 March 1955, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[30] Nehru to Pandit, 3 April 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[31] Nehru to Pandit, 14 April 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[32] Nehru to Pandit, No. 618-PMH/55, 3 April 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[33] See CitationWright, Color Curtain.
[34] Pandit to Nehru (handwritten note), 13 May 1955, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[35] 18 and 19 April 1955, PM 55/36 and 22 April 1955, FS/55/6, FO 800/675.
[36] 14 May 1955, Canadian Ambassador (UK) to MacDonald, MAC 42/1/1–26, Malcolm MacDonald Papers (Palace Green Library), Durham.
[37] 1 June 1955, UK Chief Secretary (Kuala Lumpur) to MacDonald, MAC 42/1/1–26, MacDonald Papers.
[38] 17 October 1955, Macmillan to Caroe, MSS Macmillan dep C 300, Macmillan Papers (Bodleian Library).
[39] 23 November 1955, RLD Jasper (New York) to CRO, No. 2274/58/55, DO 35/3088, TNA.
[40] 2 December 1955, Nehru to Pandit, No. 2227-PMH/55, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[41] See CitationBarrett, Great Middle East.
[42] 2 December 1955, Nehru to Pandit, No. 2227-PMH/55, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[43] Note of meeting with Macmillan on 30 November 1955, 22-PS/55, sent to Nehru on 1 December 1955, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[44] 22 November 1955, AH Joyce’s note, DO 35/6578.
[45] 28 December 1955, Attlee to MacDonald, MAC 42/12/1–72, MacDonald Papers.
[46] 12–13 December 1955, notes of Nehru-Khrushchev Talks, Subject File 17, Subimal Dutt Papers (NMML).
[47] 20 December 1955, Nehru’s note, Subject File Serial No. 17, Subimal Dutt Papers.
[48] 17 December 1955, No. 167, MacDonald to CRO, DO 35/6649.
[49] Note of meeting with Macmillan on 30 November 1955, 22-PS/55, sent to Nehru on 1 December 1955 and 12 December 1955, Pandit to Nehru, note of meeting with Home on 8 December 1955, 24-PS/55, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[50] Nehru to Pandit, No. 2271-PMH/55, 5 December 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[51] Nehru to Pandit, No. 2333-PMH/55, 15 December 1955, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[52] 16 December 1955, Harold Macmillan to Anthony Eden, 57/55, DO 35/6649.
[53] 3 January 1956, Gilbert Laithwaite’s comments, DO 35/6649.
[54] 17 January 1956, Delhi to CRO, No. 6 and 24 January 1956, Moscow to FO, 1051/6/56, DO 35/6578.
[55] 23 January 1956, Sir S Garner to ACB Symon (Karachi), SA24/78/1, DO 35/6649.
[56] 21 December 1955, Pandit to Nehru, No. 29-PS/55, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[57] Note of meeting with Selwyn Lloyd on 22 January and with Home on 25 January 1956, 6-PS/56, sent to Nehru on 26 January 1956, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[58] 6 March 1956, Mountbatten to Eden, MB1/I225 (Folder 3), Mountbatten Papers (Hartley), Southampton.
[59] 4 March 1956, Nehru-Selwyn Lloyd talks, Subject File Serial No. 88, Subimal Dutt Papers, NMML.
[60] Note of meeting with Home on 21 March 1956, sent to Nehru on 22 March 1956, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[61] 15 March 1956, No. 762, CRO to UK HC, DO 35/6618.
[62] 18 May 1956, Saville Garner to AW Snelling, DO 35/6608.
[63] 14 June 1956, NSC Briefing, CIA–CREST Records and 29 May 1956, USUN Memo (Box 38, Folder India 1955–56), US Mission to UNO, Central Subject Files (1946–63) RG 84 (NARA) and Note dated 28 April 1956, sent on 2 May from Delhi to CRO, POL 34/106/1, DO 35/6608.
[64] 19 June 1956, MacDonald to Home, POL 36/5, MAC 42/3/1–36, MacDonald Papers.
[65] Nehru’s note of 7 April 1956, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[66] Note of meeting with Home on 25 January 1956, 6-PS/56, sent to Nehru on 26 January 1956, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[67] Nehru to Pandit, No. 913-PMH/56, 28 April 1956, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[68] Mountbatten to Alec-Douglas Home, 2 July 1956, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[69] Pandit to Nehru, No. 13-PS/56, 1 June 1956, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[70]CitationZiegler, Mountbatten, 693.
[71]CitationMorgan, Edwina Mountbatten, 392, 395.
[72] Nehru to Pandit, No. 1697-PMH/56, 4 August 1956, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[73] Nehru to Pandit (handwritten note), 11 August 1956, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[74] Pandit to Nehru, 26 November 1956, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[75] See CitationLouis and Owen, Suez 1956.
[76] DO 35/6640.
[77] 21 December 1956, No. 3450, London to Washington, CDF (1955–59) Box 2713 (690D.91), RG 59.
[78] Edwina (New Delhi) to Mountbatten, 25 January 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[79] 22 January 1957, No. 15, FO to its missions and 24 January 1957, No. 98, Karachi to CRO, DO 35/6610.
[80] 8 March 1957, Memorandum by Secretary of State (CRO) on Kashmir, C (57) 59, PREM 11/1880.
[81] Nehru’s notes on Pandit-Macmillan talks, 11 February 1957, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[82] Nehru to Pandit, 6 February 1957, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[83] 7 February 1957, CRO’s note, DO 35/10622.
[84] 13 April 1957, No. 25, MacDonald to CRO, PREM 11/1880.
[85] 19 February 1957, MacDonald to Home, MAC 42/4/1–102, MacDonald Papers.
[86] Nehru to Pandit, No. 207-PMH/57, 11 February and No. 226-PMH/57, 19 February 1957, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[87] Nehru to Mountbatten, No. 206-PMH/57, 11 February 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[88] Mountbatten to Nehru, 28 February 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 2), Mountbatten Papers.
[89] Oral History Transcripts, Alva Myrdal, Acc. No. 192 (NMML), 21–22.
[90] Nehru to Pandit, 9 March 1957, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[91] MAC 42/4/1–102, MacDonald Papers.
[92] Mountbatten to Nehru, 15 March 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 2), Mountbatten Papers.
[93] Pandit to Nehru, No. 14-HC/57, 28 March 1957, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[94] 29 April 1957, POL 5/122/2, Despatch No. 29, MacDonald to Home, MAC 42/4/1–102, MacDonald Papers.
[95] 24 April 1957, Pierson Dixon to Selwyn Lloyd, UN 2258/18, DO 35/3008, TNA.
[96] May 1957, Report on the Commonwealth Delegations at the 11th Session of the UNGA, DO 35/3008, TNA.
[97] Malcolm MacDonald to Mountbatten, 11 June 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[98] Mountbatten to McDonald (in reply), 3 July 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[99] Selwyn Lloyd to Mountbatten, 14 July 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[100] Malcolm MacDonald to Mountbatten, 16 July 1957, MB1/I225 (Folder 1), Mountbatten Papers.
[101] 23 May 1957, New Delhi to CRO, No. 86, DO 35/3008, TNA.
[102] MAC 42/4/99, MacDonald Papers.
[103]CitationMcGarr, Cold War in South Asia, 101–102 and Chapters 2 and 3.
[104] Nehru to Pandit, 12 January 1958, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[105] Nehru to Mountbatten, 28 January 1958, MB1/I225 (Folder 2), Mountbatten Papers.
[106] 16 April 1958, Rountree’s Talking Paper (Lot 62D43, Box 2 of 3–23, Folder US–UK Talks, 1958), Office of South Asian Affairs, 1939–59 (Files relating to India, 1945–52) (Lot 57D259, 54D341 and 62D43) RG 59 and 17 April 1958, Dulles to Eisenhower, Box 8, Folder 1, Ann Whitman Papers on John Foster Dulles: 1952–59; Eisenhower Presidential Papers, Dulles-Herter Series (MC 172) and (690D.91/17–458) CDF (1955–59) Box 2714 (690D.91) RG 59.
[107] 21 April 1958, Eisenhower to Dulles, Box 8, Folder 1, Ann Whitman Papers on John Foster Dulles: 1952–59; Eisenhower Presidential Papers, Dulles-Herter Series (MC 172), Princeton.
[108] 4 June 1958, Edwin Martin (London) to Fred Bartlett (Washington) (Lot 62D43, Box 2 of 3–23, Folder US–UK Talks, 1958) (Folder Package 2 of 2), Office of South Asian Affairs, 1939–59 (Files relating to India, 1945–52) (Lot 57D259, 54D341 and 62D43) RG 59.
[109] 4 March 1960, MacDonald to CRO, Despatch No. 5, TC 85/5/3, 42/9, MacDonald Papers.
[110] 28 April 1958, CS Pickard’s note, DO 35/8986.
[111] FO’s note on arguments for supporting US approach to India and Pakistan, DO 35/8986.
[112] 25 April 1958, No. 996, Harold Caccia (Washington) to FO, DO 35/8986.
[113] February 1959, FO’s appreciation, DO 35/10622.
[114] Pandit to Nehru, No. 19-HC/59, 9 April 1959, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[115] Nehru to Pandit, 15 April 1959, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[116] 6 February 1959, Pierson Dixon to Selwyn Lloyd, UN 2258/2 and 23 May 1959, MacDonald to Home, POL 79/19, DO 35/3008, TNA.
[117] 7 October 1959, Bartlett (State Department) to Clark (CRO), DO 35/8989.
[118] Pandit to Nehru, 26 October 1959, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[119] 31 October and 19 November 1959, No. 40, POL 5/6/11, MacDonald to CRO, 42/8, MacDonald Papers.
[120] 20 November 1959, CRO note, DO 35/8989.
[121] 4 January 1960, Keeble to Clark (CRO), DO 35/8989.
[122] 8 January 1960, MacDonald to Clutterbuck, DO 35/8989.
[123] 14 January 1960, Malcolm MacDonald to Alexander Clutterbuck (CRO), DO 35/8999.
[124] 4 March 1960, Delhi to CRO, POL AG/3, DO 35/8846.
[125] 22 February 1960, Pierson Dixon to Selwyn Lloyd, UN 2258/1, DO 35/3008, TNA.
[126] 12 February 1960, Notes of Nehru-Khrushchev Talks, Subject File Serial No. 24, Subimal Dutt Papers.
[127] 29–31 March 1960, Notes of Nehru-Nasser Talks, Subject File 111, Subimal Dutt Papers.
[128] 20 June 1960, CRO to Karachi, 12/5/7, DO 35/8999.
[129] 13 July 1960, MacDonald to CRO, No. 21, POL 5/122/2, MAC 42/11/1–25, MacDonald Papers.
[130] Pandit to Nehru, No. 49-HC/60, 30 July 1960, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[131] 6 October 1960, VC Martin to Gore-Booth, Gore-Booth Papers (MS Eng C 4524), Bodleian Library.
[132] Pandit to Nehru, 22 November 1960, Subject File Serial No. 62, Pandit Papers.
[133] Nehru to Pandit, No. 2528-PMH/60, 9 December 1960, Subject File Serial No. 61, Pandit Papers.
[134] See McGarr, ‘After Nehru, what?’.
[135] FO appreciation, February 1959, DO 35/10622, TNA.
[136]CitationCrocker, Nehru, 68; and CitationReid, Envoy to Nehru, 37–38 and 193–194.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Rakesh Ankit
Rakesh Ankit finished his PhD (History) at Southampton in October 2014, and has since been attached as an honorary research fellow at the Centre for Imperial and Post Colonial Studies, University of Southampton. Correspondence to: Rakesh Ankit, Centre for Imperial and Post Colonial Studies, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BG, UK.