Enthusing about green peppers: the Europeanisation of British food culture in post-war Britain, 1960-1975

ABSTRACT

The article demonstrates how food contributed to the Europeanisation of British culture between 1960 and 1975, the period leading up to the 1975 Referendum on membership of the European Community. The analysis identifies the meanings and values associated with Europe in cooking columns in two British broadsheet newspapers, TheTimes and the Observer, and examines how people were encouraged to make identifications with Europe. However, the article demonstrates how the meanings associated with Europe were not monolithic and were inflected by class and gender. In particular, continental culinary practices were associated with the tastes and dispositions of emergent new middle-class formations. More generally, the analysis demonstrates how these representations of European food offered middle-class people ways to experiment with feeling European in their everyday lives. In a Brexit context in which much research has asked why British people rejected Europe, the article seeks to contribute to a parallel history of how so many other British people came to identify as European through engagements with popular culture.

KEYWORDS:

• Food culture
• Europeanisation
• postwar Britain
• food media
• class

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. E.P. Thompson. 1975. ‘Going Into Europe.’ Sunday Times, 27 April.

2. Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 47.

3. Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy.

4. Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 75.

5. Weight, Mod!, 55.

6. Sandbrook, Never Had it So Good, 491–500.

7. O’Brien, The Rise of Art Cinema, 218, 222.

8. For more on Elizabeth David, see Jones and Taylor, ‘Food Writing and Food Cultures’; Humble, Culinary Pleasures; and Floyd, ‘Simple, Honest Food’.

9. Highmore, ‘Feeling It’.

10. Nixon, ‘Life in the Kitchen’, 82.

11. Cited in Moran, ‘Early Cultures of Gentrification’, 109.

12. Geddes, ‘Common Market Cookery’.

13. For work on the UK, see Jones and Taylor, ‘Food Journalism’. For research on newspaper cookery pages in the US, see Voss, The Food Section.

14. See, for example, Humble, Culinary Pleasures; Hardyment, A Slice of Life; Jones and Taylor, Food Writing and Food Cultures; Geddes, ‘Common Market Cookery’; and Panayi, Spicing Up Britain.

15. Williams, ‘The Analysis of Culture’, 39.

16. Humble, Culinary Pleasures, 125; Floyd, ‘Simple, Honest Food’, 131.

17. Sandbrook, Never Had it So Good, 732–3. Carrier was a food writer for the Sunday Times.

18. Warde, Consumption, Food and Taste, 44.

19. Bourdieu, Distinction; Johnston and Goodman, ‘Spectacular Foodscapes’, 207.

20. Warde, Consumption, Food and Taste, 44.

21. Jackson, Anxious Appetities.

22. Moores, media/theory, 17.

23. Voss, The Food Section, 8.

24. The sample is missing Observer columns from July 1969. They were missing from the University of Cambridge library and are not digitised.

25. Panayi, Spicing Up Britain, 8 and Maxwell and DeSoucey, ‘Gastronomic Cosmopolitanism’, 88.

26. This approach was informed by Warde, ‘Imagining British Cuisine’ and Johnston and Baumann, ‘Democracy versus Distinction’. For historical studies of class, gender and domesticity during the period, see, for example, Attfield, ‘Inside Pram Town’; Partington, ‘The Designer Housewife in the 1950s’; Webster, Imagining Home; and Hollows, Domestic Cultures.

27. Ichijo and Ranta, Food, National Identity and Nationalism, 4.

28. Ashley et al., Food and Cultural Studies, 76, 81 and Donald, ‘How English is it?’.

29. For example, Appadurai, ‘How to Make a National Cuisine’.

30. James, ‘How British is British Food?’, 73.

31. Panayi, Spicing Up Britain, 8.

32. Panayi, Spicing Up Britain.

33. Ichijo and Ranta, Food, National Identity and Nationalism, 6.

34. Sheridan, ‘Eating the Other’, 321.

35. Weight, Patriots, 503; and Sandbrook, State of Emergency, 146.

36. Humble, Culinary Pleasures, 121.

37. R. Stummer. 2014. ‘Len Deighton’s Observer Cookstrips.’ Observer, December 14. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/dec/14/len-deighton-observer-cookstrips-michael-caine-1960s

38. Anderson and Weymouth, Insulting the Public; Spiering, ‘Food, Phagophobia’.

39. James, ‘How British is British Food?’, 75–6; see also Mennell, All Manners of Food.

40. Humble, Culinary Pleasures; Panayi, Spicing Up Britain; and Lyon, ‘Good Food and Hard Times’.

41. Mennell, All Manners of Food, 243.

42. Humble, Culinary Pleasures, 103.

43. Mennell, All Manners of Food, 249.

44. Hardyment, Slice of Life, 39.

45. Ibid., 72.

46. Ibid., 57.

47. Mennell, All Manners of Food, 257; Hardyment, Slice of Life, 57.

48. Warde, ‘Imagining British Cuisine’, 154.

49. Panayi, Spicing Up Britain, 217.

50. Syllabub. 1960. ‘Fashions in Eating.’ Observer, April 24.

51. C. Freud. 1964. ‘Time for Dinner?’ Observer, September 6.

52. C. Freud. 1965. ‘Now is the Time.’ Observer, January 17.

53. C. Freud. 1964. ‘Garnishing Made Easy.’ Observer, October 11.

54. C. Freud. 1964. ‘Time for Dinner?’ Observer, September 6.

55. Ibid.

56. C. Freud. 1964. ‘A Good Casserole.’ Observer, September 20.

57. C. Freud. 1964. ‘Time for Dinner?’ Observer, September 6.

58. C. Freud. 1964. ‘A Splendidly Undemanding Dinner Party.’ Observer, September 13: 54.

59. C. Freud. 1965. ‘Some Super Soufflés.’ Observer, July 11.

60. C. Freud. 1966. ‘The Lowdown on Haute Cuisine: easy meat.’ Observer, October 9: 44–6; C. Freud. 1966. ‘The Lowdown on Haute Cuisine: Fish at its Finest.’, Observer, October 23: 40, 42. Although two dishes were not French, ‘Omelette Arnold Bennett’ was invented by a French chef at London’s Savoy Hotel and even ‘Boiled leg of lamb with caper sauce’ contained continental capers.

61. C. Freud. 1968. ‘Going Danish.’ Observer, April 21: 40, 42.

62. Hollows, ‘Oliver’s Twist’.

63. Stummer, ‘Len Deighton’s Observer Cookstrips’.

64. Baker, ‘You’re Quite a Gourmet’, 40.

65. See note 63 above.

66. Baker, ‘You’re Quite a Gourmet’, 42.

67. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Rice.’ Observer, April 8: 32; L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Advanced Pasta.’ Observer, April 29: 33; and L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Eels Across Europe.’ Observer, October 14: 32.

68. L. Deighton. 1964. ‘Chou Farci aux Tomates.’ Observer, July 12; 31.

69. L. Deighton. 1964 ‘Mayonnaise.’ Observer, April 5: 33; L. Deighton. 1964. ‘Vinaigrette.’ Observer, April 12: 31.

70. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Rich Stock.’ Observer, April 1: 33.

71. See note 63 above.

72. For more on gender, care and cooking see Devault, Feeding the Family and Cairns and Johnston, Food and Femininity.

73. L. Deighton. 1964. ‘Slicing Vegetables.’ Observer, January 12: 33. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Rice.’ Observer, April 8: 32.

74. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Pancakes and Puddings.’ Observer, April 15: 33. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Rice.’ Observer, April 8: 32.

75. Bourdieu, Distinction, 366–7.

76. Highmore, ‘Feeling It’, 116.

77. L. Deighton. 1964, ‘Fromage de Porc.’ Observer, July 19: 27.

78. Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 75.

79. Cited in Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 74–5.

80. L. Deighton. 1962. ‘Glossary for a Gourmet.’ Observer, October 21: 32.

81. L. Deighton. 1964. ‘Steak.’ Observer, October 11: 33.

82. Parkhurst Ferguson, ‘A Cultural Field’. At this point, the dominance of French haute cuisine as the gastronomic gold standard was beginning to be challenged in the US, see Johnston and Baumann, ‘Democracy versus Distinction’.

83. Moseley, ‘Real Lads do Cook’, 39.

84. For an account of how gender and classed coalesced in the masculinisation of cooking in a different national context, see Hollows ‘The Bachelor Dinner’.

85. Moran, ‘Early Cultures of Gentrification’, 110.

86. S. Conran. 1966. ‘Good at Stodge.’ Observer, April 17.

87. See S. Conran. 1966 ‘Conjuring Up.’ Observer, January 30: 36, 38. This features Vivienne Nixon, wife of TV magician David Nixon.

88. S. Conran. 1966. ‘Sudden Suppers.’ Observer, January 23: 34–5; and S. Conran. 1966. ‘A Party for Boutique Society.’ Observer, July 24.

89. S. Conran. 1966. ‘Buffet Fit For a Queen.’ Observer, January 1: 26–7.

90. S. Conran. 1965. ‘Rosemary Grimble Gives an Informal Sunday Lunch.’ Observer, October 10: 53–4; and S. Conran. 1965. ‘On my Italian Kick.’ Observer, October 24.

91. S. Conran. 1966. ‘The Dish with Everything.’ Observer, October 30: 45–6.; S. Conran. 1966. ‘Portugal SW1.’ Observer, October 16: 45–6; and S. Conran. 1966. ‘Moussakas in Mykonos.’ Observer, October 2: 44–6.

92. Conran, ‘Rosemary Grimble Gives.’ 53.

93. This can be understood within wider trends towards informalization in the period identified by critics such as Wouters, ‘Formalization and Informalization.’

94. Conran, ‘Rosemary Grimble Gives.’ 53; and S. Conran. 1966. ‘Tonight with de Manio.’ Observer, July 17: 28–30.

95. Conran, ‘Party for Boutique Society’ and Conran, ‘Rosemary Grimble Gives’.

96. Highmore, ‘Feeling It’ and Binkley, Getting Loose.

97. Bourdieu, Distinction; Bell and Hollows, ‘Mobile Homes’.

98. Trubek, cited in DeSoucey, ‘Gastronationalism’, 438.

99. I am very grateful to the News UK Archivist who gave me the figure of 17 correspondents, based on a sample of 42 articles created from my wider sample. The figure, therefore, may be higher. Nine of these correspondents wrote multiple articles during the period, some wrote a significant number. Names were covered by confidentiality agreements until death.

100. Jones and Taylor, ‘Food Writing and Food Cultures’.

101. See janegrigsontrust.org.uk for more.

102. Johnston and Baumann, ‘Democracy versus Distinction’, 179.

103. ‘Cherry Ripe.’ Times, July 15, 1963: 13.

104. Johnston and Baumann, ‘Democracy versus Distinction’, 184–5.

105. ‘Bulgarian Dishes.’ Times, October 14, 1963: 13.

106. ‘Old Chestnuts.’ Times, January 11, 1960: 15.

107. ‘Olive Oil.’ Times, April 26, 1965: 13.

108. ‘Cooking with George Sand.’ Times, October 8, 1962: 15.

109. J. Grigson. 1968. ‘Prunes.’ Observer, October 20: 70–73.

110. J. Grigson. 1969. ‘Sharp Practices.’ Observer, April 27.

111. J.Grigson. 1969. ‘Give the Walnut a Break.’ Observer, October 12: 76–78.

112. Johnston and Baumann, 187.

113. ‘Olive Oil.’ Times, April 26, 1965: 13 and ‘Italian Fish.’ Times, 4 January 1960: 13.

114. Johnston and Baumann, ‘Democracy versus Distinction’, 188.

115. Bell and Valentine, Consuming Geographies, 6.

116. ‘Italian Fish.’ Times, January 4, 1960: 13.

117. ‘Easter Recipes.’ Times, April 4, 1960: 13; and ‘Roman Cooking’. Times, 18 July 1960: 13.

118. ‘Ducky Birds’, Times, January 1, 1965: 11; and ‘Peppers on the Menu.’ Times, October 19, 1964: 15.

119. Moran, ‘Housing, Memory and Everyday Life’, 612 and Highmore, ‘Feeling it’, 112. Nixon, ‘Life in the Kitchen’ notes how the style of David’s kitchen rejected America in favour of Europe (83).

120. Binkley and Littler, ‘Introduction’.

121. Jones and Taylor, ‘Food Writing and Food Culture’, 180.

122. J. Grigson. 1968. ‘Tomatoes.’ Observer, July 7: 30–31.

123. ‘Cobs for Kings.’ Times, October 16, 1961: 15; and ‘Herrings.’ Times, January 2, 1961: 11.

124. ‘Traditional Easter Fare.’ Times, 16 April 1962: 13.

125. J. Grigson. 1969. ‘Sharp Practices.’ Observer, April 20.

126. J. Grigson. 1974. ‘In a Class of Their Own.’ Observer, October 20: 82.

127. ‘Sweetbreads.’ Times, October 15, 1962: 13.

128. ‘Cooking Tripe.’ Times, April 8, 1960: 21.

129. J. Grigson. 1969. ‘The Noble Pig.’ Observer, April 26: 36.

130. J. Grigson. 1975. ‘In Common English—Cheap.’ Observer, January 26: 43. This column includes kidneys ‘in the Flemish style’ and what sounds like a French dish for kidney in red wine, alongside a more traditional British dish of ‘Shin of beef and kidney pie’.

131. Lupton, Food, Body, Self, 126.

132. J. Grigson. 1974. ‘In a Class of Their Own.’ Observer, October 20: 82.

133. ‘Life Cycle of the Silver Eel.’ Times, April 5, 1965: 13.

134. J. Grigson. 1971. ‘Cuisine Hollandaise.’ Observer, April 25: 18–19.

135. ‘Norwegian Ways with Fish.’ Times, October 11, 1965: 13.

136. ‘Cooking with Herbs.’ Times, April 6, 1964: 13.

137. J. Grigson. 1968. ‘Parsley.’ Observer, July 21: 30.

138. J. Grigson. 1970. ‘Autumn Harvest in the Woods.’ Observer, October 25: 90.

139. J. Grigson. 1975. ‘Better to Travel Hungrily.’ Observer, January 19: 44.

140. J. Grigson. 1969. ‘Autumn Fruits.’ Observer, October 5: 38.

141. J. Grigson. 1970. ‘Winter Stodge.’ Observer, October 4: 26.

142. J. Grigson. 1971. ‘Food with a View.’ Observer, April 18: 14–15.

143. Prior to Stewart, there was a brief period in 1966 during which occasional contributors were named (for example, Jennifer Keck, Hilary Gelson and Caroline Conran).

144. K. Stewart. 1967. ‘January Cook’s Calendar.’ Times, January 11, p. 13.

145. K. Stewart. 1970. ‘Trout with Almonds.’ Times, October 24, p. 20. K. Stewart. 1972. ‘Katie Stewart.’ Times, January 7, p.6.

146. K. Stewart. 1969. ‘A Feast of Frikadeller.’ Times, April 19, p. 25.

147. Mennell, All Manners of Food, 261.

148. K. Stewart. 1972. ‘Paella for a Party.’ Times, January 29, p. 11.

149. K. Stewart. 1967. ‘Recipes with Rice.’ Times, October 21, p. 24.

150. K. Stewart. 1973. ‘Hot Cheer for Cold Meats.’ Times, April 21, p. 10.

151. K. Stewart. 1967. ‘Easy Spanish risotto.’ Times, April 12, p.9.

152. James, ‘How British is British Food?’, 84.

153. Murcott, ‘It’s a Pleasure’ and Charles and Kerr, Women, Food and Families.

154. See note 32above.

155. Cappeliez and Johnston, ‘From Meat and Potatoes’, 441.

156. Beck, ‘Rooted Cosmopolitanism’, 21–2.

157. K. Stewart. 1973. ‘Soups of the Season.’ January 13, p. 12.

158. E.P. Thompson. 1975. ‘Going Into Europe’, Sunday Times, 27 April.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Joanne Hollows

Joanne Hollows is an Independent researcher. Her books includeFeminism, Femininity and Popular Culture (Manchester University Press 2000), Domestic Cultures (Open University Press 2008), Media Studies (John Murray 2016) and Food and Cultural Studies (Routledge 2004, with Bob Ashley, Steve Jones and Ben Taylor). She is currently completing Celebrity Chefs and the Politics of Eating  for Bloomsbury for publication in 2022.