From Bounded to Flexible Citizenship: Lessons from Africa

Abstract

This paper draws on a recently published study on xenophobia in Southern Africa to discuss the hierarchies and inequalities that underpin citizenship. Paradoxically, national citizenship and its emphasis on large-scale, assimilationist and bounded belonging are facing their greatest challenge from their inherent contradictions and closures, and from an upsurge in rights claims and the politics of recognition and representation by small-scale communities claiming autochthony at a historical juncture where the rhetoric highlights flexible mobility, postmodern flux and discontinuity. In Africa as elsewhere, accelerated mobility and increased uncertainty are generating mounting tensions fuelled by autonomy-seeking difference. Such ever decreasing circles of inclusion demonstrate that no amount of questioning by immigrants immersed in the reality of flexible mobility seems adequate to de-essentialize the growing global fixation with an “authentic” place called home. Thus trapped in cosmopolitan spaces in a context where states and their hierarchy of “privileged” citizens believe in the coercive illusion of fixed and bounded locations, immigrants, diasporas, ethnic minorities and others who straddle borders are bound to feel like travellers in permanent transit. This calls for scholarship, politics and policies informed by historical immigration patterns and their benefits for recipient communities. The paper argues in favour of greater scholarly and political attention on the success stories of forging new relationships of understanding between citizens and subjects that are suggestive of new, more flexible, negotiated, cosmopolitan and popular forms of citizenship, with the emphasis on inclusion, conviviality and the celebration of difference.

Notes

¹ Makwerekwere means different things in different contexts, but as used in South Africa and Botswana, it means not only a black person who cannot demonstrate mastery of local South African languages, but also one who hails from a country assumed to be economically and culturally backward in relation to South Africa. With reference to civilization, the Makwerekwere would qualify as the “homo caudatus”, “tail-men”, “cavemen”, “primitives”, “savages”, “barbarians” or “hottentots” of modern times, those who inspired these nomenclatures in Southern Africa attempting to graduate from naked savagery into the realm of citizenship. In terms of skin pigmentation, the racial hierarchy of humanity under apartheid comes into play, as Makwerekwere are usually believed to be the darkest of the dark-skinned, and to be less enlightened even when more educated than the lighter-skinned South African and Batswana blacks. Makwerekwere are also thought to come from distant locations in the remotest corners of the “Heart of Darkness” north of the Limpopo, about which South Africans and Batswana in their modernity know little, and are generally not interested to discover, except to continue the “civilizing mission” begun by European missionaries and colonialists in Southern Africa in the seventeenth century.