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Abstract
Even before its present territorial configuration, Angola and its history are marked by war. Indeed, war has been the main process in the overall the country’s formation and its historical political regimes. Albeit their complexity and diversity, Angolan wars were characterized by low and medium intensity operations, interspersed with larger and violent battles. One political consequence of this dynamic relates to the emergence of popular mobilizations through impromptu forms of social organization.
Notes
1. Kimbundo word for rumour.
2. As it will be discussed later on, the main opposition party refused to accept election’s results and the ensuing geopolitical developments.
3. The gathering of these oral accounts took place during many years in the 1990s. They were supported by the conversations held with Father Emanuel Valipo in Ondjiva Diocese. The oral narratives concerning the events occurred between the First World War and 1958 were collected through extremely useful interviews to José Rocha de Abreu, a former journalist from Benguela, now deceased. Rocha de Abreu worked at Radio Brazaville during the 1960s.
4. Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (Angolan National Liberation Front).
5. Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (Popular Movement of Liberation of Angola).
6. Portuguese International and State Defense Police.
7. União para a Independência Total de Angola (Union for Total Independence of Angola).
8. Information about the size of military personnel at Luanda garrison was given by an Angolan military official, linked to an informal nationalist group – part of which was later involved with the Angolan Democratic Movement, formed in the aftermath of 25 April 1974.
9. These numbers were estimated by a nationalist group in exile, identified as ‘Freedom and Peace Group’ (GLP) in the end of 1973.
10. Exército de Libertação Nacional de Angola (National Liberation Army of Angola).
11. Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (People’s Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola).
12. Forças Armadas de Libertação de Angola (Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola).
13. South Africa Defence Forces, now South African National Defence Forces.
14. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Cuba.
15. Armed Forces of Zaire, now DRC.
16. It is unknown if the explosion was due to defective material or to operator’s incompetency. General ‘Tonha’, ELNA commander, manifested little confidence in operator’s ability (Miguel Jr. Citation2011).
17. South West African People’s Organization, now SWAPO of Namibia, ruling party.
18. The author was a testimony of the events.
19. Idem.
20. These events took place in the south, including Huila province where the author was stationed.
21. The exact numbers for each army were either confidential or unknown given the lack of accurate information regarding recruitment and the participation of paramilitary and armed civilian groups. The figures mentioned intend to give a sense of the magnitude of the forces and are supported by oral testimonies gathered by informal and clandestine groups, known as ‘Independent Democrats’.
22. This information was widely known among the ‘Independent Democrats’ group. See, Gonçalves Citation2010.
23. The author was a testimony of the material effects of these events.
24. The documents mentioned were object of a rigorous analysis which was systematically published between 1984 and 1990 by ‘Semanário’, a Portuguese newspaper, under the pseudonym Carlos da Matta. See, Gonçalves Citation2010.
25. In UNITA’s case, the repression included execution and disappearance of dissidents.
26. Angolan Armed Forces.
27. The author attended the ceremony in which this agreement was signed.
28. Armed forces of Angola.
29. Years later, the circumvention of international embargos led to a major criminal process in Paris.