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Abstract
This study examines the relevance of nineteenth-century Maghrib scholarship models to the transmission of Islamic knowledge and information among communities of American Muslims in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Nana Asma'u 'dan Fodio (1793–1864) – scholar, teacher, poet, and activist – was actively involved in the trials and itinerancy of the Sokoto Jihad (1804–30), in which she was principally involved. Although she never travelled beyond her region (now known as northwestern Nigeria), her scholarly reputation extended throughout the Maghrib during her lifetime. This paper explains how Asma'u's reputation and work was spread from the Maghrib to the USA by American Qadiriyya groups that purposively modelled their own communities on that of the nineteenth-century Fodio family network, developing women's study groups based on Asma'u's model, the 'Yan Taru (The Associates), and using her educational materials in twentieth- and twenty-first-century-technological contexts.
Keywords:
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Its website explains: The FOMWAN was established in October 1985 and registered with the Corporate Affairs Commission the same year. With a consultative status with the United Nations, FOMWAN is a non-profit and non-governmental civil society umbrella body for Muslim women associations in Nigeria. Today FOMWAN is in 34 states of the federation and has over 500 affiliate groups. FOMWAN National headquarters, Utako Abuja is under construction. The multi-million-naira project includes an administrative building, a hostel block, conference hall, and a mosque. FOMWAN is a network of Muslim Women organisations nationally. It is emerging and growing as a national faith-based, non-governmental organisation with emphasis on promoting and protecting the interest, welfare, and aspirations of its members in line with Islamic injunctions. The impetus for the establishment and existence of FOMWAN is the provision of social service especially to its members and the desire to contribute to national development. In particular, FOMWAN seeks to contribute to the overall health, literacy, and economic empowerment of its members and promotion of positive social behaviour of Muslim girls for responsible living and adulthood in Nigeria. Recently, FOMWAN reviewed and adopted a new strategic plan redefining its vision, mission, value statements, goals, and strategic objectives. http://www.fomwan.org/index.php.
2. The FOMWAN held its 23rd Annual National Conference from 21 to 24 August 2008 in Sokoto, the seat of the caliphate. The conference was attended by over 1000 delegates from all the states of the federation. Since it was established in 1985, the federation has been organising these conferences and workshops which rotate between the Northern and Southern parts of the country. The event is a grassroots affair with delegates drawn from various states and local governments. The conference papers, although delivered in English, are always translated into Hausa and Yoruba. All the members from the South East branches speak English which eased the task of translating into Igbo for the conference organisers. The activities began on Thursday with a spiritual and social night that featured a Quranic recitation competition in which award-winning female reciters participated. This year the theme of the conference was Revival and Reform in the Sokoto Caliphate and Its relevance to Present Time. The opening ceremony which was held at the Trade Fair Complex was attended by the delegates and dignitaries from state and federal levels. The Sokoto State Governor Alhaji Aliyu Magatakarda Wamakko was represented by the Commissioner, Ministry for Religious Affairs, His eminence, the Sultan of Sokoto; Alhaji Muhammad Sa'ad Abubakar was the royal father of the day while the former President, Alhaji Shehu Shagari, who was out of the country for an important affair, was the Chairman of the occasion. He was represented by Professor Abubakar Gwandu, former Vice Chancellor of Usman Danfodio University Sokoto and also the former chairman of the National Pilgrims Commission. The First Lady, Hajiya Turai Yar'Adua, was represented by the Minister, Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development, Hajiya Saudatu Usman Bungudu. The wives of the Governors of Adamawa and Kaduna States, Hajiya Asmau Nyako and Hajiya Amina Namadi Sambo, also attended, while the wife of the Zamfara State Governor, Hajiya Aisha Mahmud Shinkafi, presented an address.
3. I attended these conferences, and heard these discussions.
4. The origins of the Qadiriyya Sufi brotherhood, of course, predate its West African appearance, having begun with the preaching of Baghdad ascetic ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (470/1077-561/1166). It is known as the first major order of many Sufi brotherhoods, and has branches and subgroups throughout the world.
5. Lately, these connections have been with individuals from the Sudan, where the Fodio family fled during the British colonial period and established another Qadiriyya community in Maiwurno, Sudan.
6. The Sankore Institute of Islamic-African Studies International (S.I.I.A.S.I) is a non-profit, non-political educational institution founded (in 1985) for the sole purpose of researching into the educational, political, cultural, and religious heritage of Islamic Africa. The primary area of concern is that part of Black Africa traditionally known as the Bilad's-Sudan (The Lands of the Blacks). These lands include all the regions located south of the Sahara desert and north of the tropical jungles, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. The purpose of the S.I.I.A.S.I is to elucidate and evidence the Islamic traditions which were born out of African nations such as Takrur, Songhay, Mali, Ghana, Kanem-Bornu, Wodai, Fur, Funj, Sokoto, Segu, Massina, and the Mahdist kingdom of the Nile valley. http://www.siiasi.org/. (Its website is under reconstruction.)
7. Shaykh Muhammad Sharif, the Imam in the late 1990s, learned about the ‘Yan Taru model and recommended to the women of the community that they investigate and pursue the kinds of educational goals inherent in it.
8. Owing to variations in transliteration from the Fulfulde in Ajami (i.e. Fulfulde language in Arabic script), the family name Fodio is spelled variously: Fodio, Fodiyo, and Fuduye. Each is correct.
9. Organizers contacted Jean Boyd and me to procure permission to post translations of Asma'u’s works from the Collected Works volume.
10. This poem was one written in response to her brother Bello's distressed poem on the eve of a jihad battle, when the enemy's drums were heard over the hill.
11. For an account of this see the DVD ‘New Muslim Cool' (Specific Pictures), narrated by Hamza Perez.
12. In September 2010, I visited the ‘Yan Taru group in Hartford, CT, whose membership is drawn from a wide region of the state. The group was small, about 10, and included a Latina who was a new Muslimah.
13. These include Umdat al Muta'abeeden wa l Muhtarafeen (The Suppport of Worshippers and Professionals) by Shehu Uthman ‘dan Fodio; Risalat li Amrad (Epistle that Cures Sicknesses, Containing Advice that Meets the Goals) by Sultan Muhammad Bello; Taleem al Anam (The Education of Humanity) by Sultan Muhammad Bello, the Khabair (major sins or enormities) text to be announced, Adab al Muashirat (Manual of Social Etiquette) by Shaykh Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio, the laws of Marriage, the laws of Trade, and Ilm Al falak (Islamic Astronomy to Determine the New Moon, Times of Prayer).
14. The first level includes studies of Arabic letters (pronunciation and reading), basic grammar, vocabulary, introduction to Tajweed (pronunciation), rules of tajweed, tajweed for the entire Qur'an, and calligraphy. The second level includes attention to the collected works of Sayyida Nana Asmau, a reading of Usman Bugaje's A Revolution in History, and Zamaan an Nasara (Time of the Christians). The third level focuses on memoration, using Hifz al Qu'ran (Memorization of the Qur'an), and Hifz al Hadith, wal mutun (Memorization of the Qu'ran, Prophetic traditions and our texts). The fourth level discusses media training, with a focus on how to explain Islam to the world using the methodology of the Shehu and family; modern media such as movies, radio, and documentaries; and the dos and don'ts in the media.
15. Level I includes (1) Aqeedah Usul ul din (Foundation of the Religion-Introduction to ’Aqeedah or the Muslim creed), Kifaya Al-Muhtadeen (The Sufficiency of the Rightly Guided) – Introduction to ‘Aqeedah by Shaykh Uthman dan Fodio), and Mi'raj ila Al-Awwam sam'i ilm Al-Kalaam (Aqeedah) ((Ladder of the Common to the Hearing of the Sciences of Desputation). Level II includes Aqeedah, Fiqh, Tasawwuf (Science of social behaviour), Taqrib ad-daruri (The Essentials of the Sciences of the Religion – Overview of aqeedah, fiqh and tasawwuf) by Shaykh Abdullahi dan Fodio, Ruh as Salah (The Essence of Prayer by Shaykh Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio), Risalah lil-Amraad Shafiyah (Seven Socio-spiritual Remedies for Individuals and Communities by Shaykh Muhammad Bello), al-Sullam ila al-huda, ma'rifat arkan al-salat (Ladder to the Right Path, Knowing the Pillars of Prayer) (fiqh of salaah), ’Ulum Al-Mu'amilah (fard Al-ayn – Individual obligation – Aqeedah, fiqh and tasawwuf), and Masaa'il al Insan Nayl'l-Maram (The Obtainment of the Goal from Habits of Nobility). The third level includes Tasawwuf (Spiritual purification), Akhlaq al Mustapha (The Character of the Chosen One by Shaykh Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio), Tariq ‘l jannah (The Path of Paradise by Shaykh Uthman ‘dan Fodio), Usul at- Tariqah (Foundations of the Spiritual Path by Shaykh Uthman ‘dan Fodio), Sabil Najah (The path to Success: Protecting the Heart and the Seven Members of the Body), and at-Tanbeehaat’ l-Waadihaat (The Clear Warnings). The fourth level includes study of Arabic letters, basic grammar, introduction to Tajweed (pronunciation), and rules of Tajweed. The fifth level includes an introduction to Sayyida Nana Asma'u, reading: ‘The Essential Nana Asma'u' (Boyd), The Caliph's Sister (Boyd), One Woman's Jihad (Mack and Boyd), and The Collected Works of Nana Asma'u (Boyd and Mack). The sixth level includes history readings: the women around the Messenger (salallahu alayhi wa salaam) – seerah, female scholars of Islam past and present. The seventh level includes Tafsir and Tajweed of Juz Amma (Part 30 of the Qur'an, chapter 78 to the end) and Kifaayat du'afa al-Sudan fi bayan tafsir al-Qur'an (The Satisfaction of the Poor/Weak of the Sudan in the Explanation on How to Comment on the Qur'an by Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio).
16. The first level involves attention to Aqeedah-Umdat al Bayan (The Supporting Explanation of the Sciences Obligatory Sciences) and Umdat al Muta'bedeen wa Mu'tarefeen (The Support of the Devout Successful Worshiper). The second level focuses on behavioural social sciences: Sawq Al-ummah (Mobilisation of the ummah- hadiths teaching the foundation ’aqida, fiqh and tasawwuf), Diya `Uluum ‘d-Deen (The Light of the Sciences of the Religion), ’Umdat Al-‘Ubbad (The Support of the Servant of Allah-the Essential Supergatory Worship), Nazm (al-Aqida) al-wusta (Verse of the Middle One), Daah ‘z-Zaad Ila ‘l-Mìaadl (Making or Garnering Provision for the Hereafter), Tanbeeh as-Saahib (Advice to a Friend by Sultan Muhammad Bello), and At-Tarjumaan `An Kiyfayat'l-Wàdh (The Interpreter on How to Preach). The third level is about Sufism (Tasawwuf), including Sawq as-Siddiqeen (The Mobilisation of the Champions of Truth), Riyaadh as-Saalikeen (The Garden of the Travellers), Tabsheer Ummat al-Ahmadiyya (Good News to the Community of Ahmad), Shukhr ‘l-Insaan `Ala Manan'l-Manaan (The Gratitude of Spiritual Excellence), Niyat Fi'l-‘Amaal (The Intention in Action), Tareeq as Saliheen (The Path of the Pious), Tahtheeb Al-Insaan (The Training of Humanity Against the Traits of Shaytan-tasawwuf- about the art of governing the soul and body) by Shaykh Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio, and Nasihah Al-Wadi'ah (About the Evil of Loving this World). The fourth level focuses on intensive Arabic grammar (nahu) and linguistics (lugha), including: Al-Ajurumiyya (grammar) of Muhammad ibn Muhammad as-Sanhaji, Al-Alfiyat (A Poem of 1000 Verses) of Ibn Malik, khat (calligraphy), Qira'at wal Hifz of juz Amma (reading and memorisation), Hifz of ahadith (memorisation of hadith), and 40 hadiths of Imam an-Nawawi, Hifz of texts of the Jama'at (memorisation of texts of the people). Level V is about Qur'anic exegesis (Tafsir al Qur'an), including Diya't-Ta'weel Fi Màana at-Tanzeel Kifaayat ‘d-Dùafa (The Sufficiency of the Non Scholarly Blacks Regarding the Commentary of the Qur'an).
17. Level I includes usul (principles, or legal methodology), focusing on Mirat at-Tullab (The Reflection of the Student- Qur'anic and Prophetic Intellectual Proofs of aqida, fiqh and tasawwuf by Shaykh Uthman ‘dan Fodio, Ihya as-Sunnah (Revival of the sunnah and the Destruction of Heretical Innovation-Explication of the Sunnah and the innovations concerning aqida, fiqh and tasawwuf), Tawfeeq l’ Muslimeen (The Success of the Muslims by Shehu Usman ‘dan Fodio), Tarweeh ‘l-Umma (The Reassuring of the Community -Shaykh ‘Uthman's methodology regarding aqida and fiqh by the Shehu), Umdat Al-‘Ulama (The Support of the Scholars -the Qur'anic and Prophetic foundations in aqida, fiqh and tasawwuf), Lubaab ‘l-Madhkhal (The Essence of the Introduction into the courtesies of the people of the deen (religion) and erudition) by Shaykh Abdullahi ‘dan Fodio, Kifaya ad-Doua'fa as-Sudan fi Bayan tafsir al- Qur'an (The Indispensable Interpretation), and Diya as-Sanad (The Sixty-three Golden Chains of Authority). Level II is mou'amalat (transactions between people). Level III includes the study of dawah (social welfare work and preaching), including Amr bil-Ma'ruf wa nahy anil munkar (Enjoining the Good and Forbidding Evil), Diya ahl Al-ihtisab (The Establishment of Social Uprightness), Udad ad-Da'ee (The Principles for Those People Invited to Allah the Exalted), and Tarjuman fi kayfiya wa'th Shaykh Uthman (Shaykh Uthman's methodology in da'wah). The fourth level is the science of diplomacy and government, including Usul As-Siyasah (The Principles of Politics), Masaa'il Al-Muhimmah (da'wah and the government), and Ghayth Al-Wabl (The Rights and Duties of Leaders). The fifth level concerns prophetic medicine, including Masalih bil-adyaan Al-Muta'alliqah Al-Insaan wa'l-abdaan (The Essential Knowledge of the Religion and Prophetic Medicine) and Ujaalatir-Rakib (Prophetic Medicine) by Muhammad Bello. The sixth level concerns sufism, including Usul Al-Wilayah (Foundations of Sainthood), Shukr Al-Ihsan (A Complete Overview of tasawwuf and the Branches of Faith), Sabil ahl-salah ila Al-falah (Sufism and News of the Hereafter), Diya Ulum Ad-Diin (The Light of the Sciences of Relgion- aqida, fiqh, awraad, adaab, and tasawwuf), and Diya Al-Qawa'id (The Light of Rules – sufism and athkaar). The seventh level focuses on the sciences of the conditions of the Signs of the End of Time, and includes Tanbeeh'l-Umma (Admonishing the Musleem Community). The eighth level is about Sufi brother hoods, and includes Salasil ath-Thahabiyyah (The Golden Chain of the Qadirriyyah Brotherhood), Tabshir Al-Ummah (Concerning the Virtues of Shaykh Abdul-Qadir Al-Jilani, may Allah be pleased with him), and at-Tafriqa Bayna at-Tasawwuf (Differentiation Between Sufism … [incomplete title]). The ninth level focuses on advanced Arabic, and includes: An-Naadhim of Abu Mugra’ regarding rhetoric (mantiq) and eloquence (balaagha), Ar-Rajaaz [metric poetry] of Abd'l-Karim al-Maghili concerning poetry (shìr) and rhyme (qawaafi), Al-Ajurumiyya of Muhammad ibn Dawud concerning grammar, syntax, and inflection, and Al-Alfiyat of Ibn Malik concerning grammar, syntax, inflection, and verbal conjugation. I am grateful for the assistance of Professor Yacine Daddi Addoun in translations of the Arabic in notes 13–17.
18. This historical connection is so strong that there are families in Georgia who have assumed the dan-Fodio surname in honour of the illustrious West African family, without any evidence of lineal connections.
19. This is not an extensive list of ‘Yan Taru groups in the USA. There are currently about a dozen chapters in various stages of development and activity, all located in major urban centres.