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ABSTRACT
This article employs the concept of critical junctures within the Tunisian transition to explain Al-Nahda's transformation. The party's new attitude is explained as a product of the causal mechanism that links critical junctures and path dependence. Relying on qualitative analysis, this article offers an innovative approach to the development of the party. It shifts the focus from the causes behind Al-Nahda's transformation to the effects that the party’ choices had on the transition to democracy and the new political system, highlighting how the agency of their decision-making in 2013 and 2014 guided the party–and the Tunisian transition–on a trajectory that enhanced the democratisation process. The article argues that since 2013 Al-Nahda has gradually accumulated democratic capital, fostering national reconciliation, which ultimately provided the party with the freedom to adopt a new political outlook. Finally, this article offers an innovative reasoning that refines theoretical tools when it comes to investigate the participation of Islamic parties in democratisation processes or political change.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Francesco Cavatorta, Rory McCarthy and the three anonymous reviewers for the insightful comments on early versions of the manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Ghannouchi (Citation2016).
2 Rached Ghannouchi is the Co-founder and the ideological leader of the party; Abdelkarim Harouni is the President of Shura; Meherzia Labidi is an MP and the Vice-President of the Constituent Assembly of Tunisia; Imen Ben Mohamed is a MP and a prominent young woman within the party; Naoufel Jammali is a MPS who joined the party after 2013 and embodies the pluralistic evolution of the party; Samir Dilo is a MP, former Minister of human rights, transitional justice and government spokesperson under Prime Minister Hamadi Jebali; Ridha Idriss is a prominent member of Shura who headed the process of separation of politics and religion within the party. Amine Ghali is the President of Kawakibi Centre of Democratic Transition
3 For more information see: https://thebeirutexchange.com/the-tunis-exchange/
4 For instance, the leading members of the party voted to endorse the Paris secret meeting between Essesbi and Ghannouchi in June 2013 (10 to 9 in favour of it). The choice to resign from office followed, being a rare event within the Arab world. The concessions made within the Constitution process are also essential. The decision to collaborate and join the national coalition is the last relevant choice of the critical juncture.
5 Abdelfattah Mourou was born in 1948 in Tunis, and was the ex-number two of the Movement from 1981 to 1991. He froze his activities and his membership in the Movement in March 1991 following a murder attempt on his life for which Movement was responsible. Mourou is known for his moderate positions. In July 1991 he attempted to create a political party, named ‘The People's Party’, but the conjuncture of the time (confrontation between the Islamists and the regime) didn't allow this.
6 After a very short honeymoon period between the Islamists and Ben Ali, the latter opted for reproducing the same repressive attitude of his predecessor.
7 Author's interview with Samir Dilou, 3 May 2017, Tunis.
8 Al-Nahda obtained 37.04% and 41.01% of the seats (89 seats), Congress for the Republic 8.71% and 13.36 of the seats (29 seats), Ettakatol 7.03% and 9.22% of the seats (26 seats). Source: National Democratic Institute, Final Report on the Tunisian National Constituent Assembly Elections, October 2011
9 Troika was an unofficial name for the alliance between the three parties (Al-Nahda, Ettakatol, and CPR) that ruled Tunisia after the 2011 Constituent Assembly election. CPR was a centrist party while Ettakatol a centre-left party.
10 Al-Nahda has been accused of nepotism and corruption. In particular, a scandal involved Ghannounchi's son-in-law, who was accused to have deposited a large sum of money from China into his personal bank account. Moreover, between 2011 and 2015 Mohamed Frikha had an airline, Syphax Airlines, which flew thousands of Tunisians to Turkey, some of whom were accused to join the Jihadi Salfists in Iraq and Syria. The airline went into bankruptcy, leaving unpaid debts, unpaid employees, and worthless tickets. The multi-million dinar debt of the airline was forgiven. Frikha is now a member of the National Assembly for Al-Nahda with parliamentary immunity from prosecution.
11 Author's interview with Abdelkarim Harouni, 21 April 2017, Québec, Canada
12 Author's interview with Naoufel Jammali, 5 January 2017, Al-Nahda headquarters, Tunis. Naoufel Jammali is a former Tunisian Minister for Professional Employment (2013–2014) and Deputy for the district of Sidi Bouzid since 2014.
13 Under the current cabinet, Al-Nahda has four undersecretaries under the age of 40s, 12 in the government block and 15% in Choura (source AlBawsala). For the government block the list includes: Oussama Al Saghir, Wafa Attia, Imen Ben Mohamed, Emna Ben Hmayed, Heger Bouzemmi, Zeineb Brahmi, Naoufel Jammali, Basma Jebali, Bechir Khelifi, Sana Mersni, Hayet Omri, Amal Souid, Karima Taggaz, Radhia Toumi. For more information see: http://majles.marsad.tn/2014/fr/assemblee, accessed 4 May 2017.
14 Author's interview with Samir Dilou, 3 May 2017, Tunis. Samir Dilo suggested Ghannouchi to call his competitor Beij Caid Essesbi before the official announcement of 2014's electoral results, showing the new collaborative and democratic attitude of Al-Nahda.
15 This statement is recurrent among the party's leading members: Rached Ghannouchi, Imen Ben Mohamed, Abdelkarin Harouni, Naoufel Jammali accepted this concept during the interviews.
16 Maya Jribi was the head of the PDP's list in Ben Arous in October 2011.
17 The three women appointed as head of list in 2014 elections are Meherzia Laabidi (District of Nabuel II), Sayda Ounissi (District France I) and Imen Ben Mohamed (District Italy). Arwa Ben Abbas and Hayet Omri were second in the list position, respectively, by Abdelfattah Mourou and Naoufel Jammali.
18 Author's interview with Imen Ben Mohamed, 2 May 2017. The Al-Nahda party continues to solicit the support of women who do not wear the hijab. Among these new political figures not wearing the hijab, we find Arwa Ben Abbas and Hayet Omri.
19 Author's interview with Meherzia Labidi, Al-Nadha headquarters, Tunis 6 January 2017.
20 Author's interview with Rached Ghannouchi, Al-Nadha headquarters, Tunis 5 January 2017.
21 Author's interview with Imen Ben Mohamed, 2 May 2017, Tunis.
22 Ghannouchi is a respected politician both in the Islamic world and among Western countries. Recently he intensified his official visits to France, Italy and the UK to pledge a more structured support to Tunisia. Likewise, he has authority within the Islamic world, as shown by the recent visit to Saudi Arabia's King Salomon, on 3rd July 2016, attended by several high-ranking Islam officials such as Afghanistan's Ashraf Ghani, the President of Gabon Ali Bongo Odimba and the Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Haris.
23 For instance, in 2016 Ghannouchi has been awarded with the Jamnalal Bajaj Award for Promoting Gandhian Values Outside India.
24 Author’s interview with Ridha Idriss, Tunis, 29 August 2017 Ridha Idriss is an executive member of Shura.
25 Author’s interview with Imen Ben Mohamed, Tunis, 29 September 2017.
26 International observers such as EU, NDI and Carter Center confirmed that the round of elections was free and fair.