The quality and standing of school-based Norwegian VET

ABSTRACT

The status and quality of vocational education and training (VET) represent a challenge in many countries, including Norway. In recent decades the political goal in Norway has been to ensure that vocational programmes at upper secondary level achieve equal status with academic programmes. Considerable efforts have been made to strengthen the quality of vocational programmes to achieve this. This article presents an analysis of the challenges of the school-based part of Norwegian VET. The analysis is particularly directed at issues of vocational relevance and coherence between the educational content and the qualification needs of the vocations. The aim is to identify the obstacles to relevance and coherence and show the attempts made to strengthen both quality and status.

KEYWORDS:

• VET model
• vocational relevance
• collaboration VET schools – companies
• VET curricula
• holistic vocational competence

Introduction

In Norway, about 49 per cent of youth cohorts choose to pursue vocational education and training (VET) programmes at upper secondary level (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2019b). This figure is high compared with, for example, Denmark, where the corresponding figure is 24 per cent (Danmark Statistik 2019). However, about 26 per cent of students in Norwegian VET programmes drop out before completing any formal education, while about 20 per cent choose to transfer to academic programmes (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2019b). There are strong political ambitions to strengthen the quality and completion rate of VET programmes and to increase the number of students who qualify as skilled workers. Another political aim is to increase the status of VET programmes (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2017).

The purpose of this article is to present an analysis and discussion of the quality and standing of Norwegian VET. The idea is that other countries may be able to learn from experiences with the Norwegian VET model. A core argument is that the major challenges regarding quality in school-based Norwegian VET concern vocational relevance and coherence. A vocationally relevant education can be defined as an education characterised by a close coherence between the educational content and the content of the actual vocation (Hiim 2017). Lack of vocational relevance in the school-based part of Norwegian VET has led to distrust and discontent among vocational businesses as well as students (Blichfeldt 1996; Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017). The analysis shows that reforms of Norwegian VET in recent decades have been aimed at strengthening both relevance and status. It is argued that there is a close connection between the two and that status is connected with quality and respect. Equal status between vocational and academic programmes is also related to issues concerning coherence between education levels. For instance, including more practical subjects at lower secondary level can strengthen students’ knowledge about practical work and make it easier to choose vocational education. Opportunities for transitioning between vocational and academic programmes and for proceeding to further education at university level from all programmes are also important for achieving equal status. However, questions can be asked about whether attempts to achieve equal status between vocational and academic programmes focus too heavily on traditional academic premises of education.

In the following, a conceptual framework for the analysis is introduced in which the concepts of vocational relevance and coherence are related to a holistic concept of vocational competence. The background and main features of the Norwegian VET model are then presented, as well as some important aspects of vocational teacher education, based on analyses of formal policy documents. Findings from the research on Norwegian VET are presented, indicating that the lack of vocational relevance and coherence poses the fundamental challenge. The findings that apply to the Norwegian model are compared to results from international research.

The discussion in the final section of the article focuses on what can be learned from experiences with the Norwegian model and how the quality and standing of VET can be enhanced.

Vocational relevance and coherence in light of a holistic concept of competence

In recent decades, relevance problems in vocational education have come into focus. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) and Schön (1983) are amongst those who have argued that the vocational education provided is often not sufficiently relevant and does not prepare students well enough for the corresponding vocations. According to Schön, the lack of relevance has led to distrust of education and of newly educated students’ competence. The works of Dreyfus and Dreyfus and of Schön ascribe the problem to a lack of understanding of how vocational competence is constituted and developed, related to a traditional split between theory and practice that is expressed through a sharp division between theoretical and practical learning arenas and subjects. They argue that there is a need to develop new epistemology, and they emphasise the multi-dimensional and holistic character of vocational competence (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1986; Schön 1983). Despite differences in their epistemologies, they both argue for the importance of authentic vocational tasks and challenges as the basis of relevant education.

Interpretations of pragmatist epistemology, such as epistemological perspectives in Wittgenstein’s (2003) late and Heidegger’s (1978) early philosophy, have played a role in the development of a holistic concept of vocational competence. From a pragmatist perspective, vocational skills and understanding constitute a whole that is expressed through professional judgement in authentic situations (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1986; Hiim 2010, 2017; Janik 1996; Molander 1997; Schön 1983). For students to develop vocational competence, theoretical understanding must be based on practical experience with vocational tasks, and theoretical and practical subjects and learning arenas must be integrated. A holistic concept of vocational competence implies a holistic vocational education.

A holistic understanding of vocational competence has gradually gained more influence, but is by no means obvious. In an article based on an extensive study of professional and vocational education, competence is defined as ‘an integrated set of knowledge, skills and attitudes’ (Koenen, Dochy, and Berghmans 2015). However, in this and in other articles it is emphasised that the use of the concept of competence varies widely and is often unclear (Lester and Religa 2017). Still, most definitions emphasise that knowledge, skills, and attitudes constitute a whole with regard to solving problems and tasks. Sometimes it is also mentioned that competence must be demonstrated.

According to Koenen, Dochy, and Berghmans (2015), competence-based, holistic vocational education is a form of education where the main principles include the solving of authentic vocational tasks and problems, the integration of subjects, and the relating of theory to tasks. Several interesting attempts have also been made to develop theories about how discipline-based theoretical knowledge can be contextualised in relation to practical performance (Heusdens et al. 2016; Young 2004). A key issue is that the meaning of the theory in relation to practical performance must be made explicit. Making the vocational meaning of theory explicit and developing vocational theoretical concepts aimed at explaining, problematising and developing vocational practice are important issues of relevance in both vocational education and vocational teacher education.

Several researchers and scholars of epistemology have argued that structuring vocational education around authentic vocational tasks and experiences is fundamentally different from structuring it around traditional scientific subjects; it builds on a different understanding of knowledge and competence (Billlett 2011; Hiim and Hippe 2001; Rauner 2007).

The concept of coherence, which is used by several education researchers, can also illuminate questions of relevance in vocational education (Canrinus et al. 2015). Heggen, Smeby, and Vågan (2015) refer to three types of coherence: biographical coherence refers to coherence between the education and the life and prior experience of the student; programme coherence refers to coherence between learning arenas and between subjects in a programme; and transitional coherence refers to coherence between the educational content and work in actual vocational workplaces. These concepts can be used to analyse coherence between, for instance, educational content at lower secondary level and in the first year of VET at upper secondary level; between learning in the classroom, the school workshop and in practice periods in companies; between academic and vocational subjects; and between the school-based part and the apprenticeship part of VET. From a holistic perspective of vocational competence and education, coherence along all these dimensions will contribute to vocationally relevant education.

Questions of relevance and coherence in Norwegian VET and questions of status will be investigated in the next sections.

The Norwegian VET model

Relevance and coherence have been emphasised in policy documents for VET over the past couple of decades, and have been associated with quality and status (St.meld. nr. 30 (2003–04); Meld. St. 20 (2012–13); Meld. St. 28 (2015–16)). The question is what these concepts mean more specifically in the organisation and implementation of VET.

An important value in the Norwegian educational system, stated in Opplæringslova (the Education Act, is the equal right for all children to education from primary school level to upper secondary school level, regardless of place of residence or socioeconomic background (Kunskapsdepartementet 1998). This value served as the foundation of the national educational reforms of 1974 and 1994 in which the right to three years of upper secondary education and formal qualification for a vocation or for higher education was granted to all Norwegian students. Under these reforms, schools were established that offered both academic and vocational programmes. One purpose was to strengthen the prestige of vocational education and to encourage more students to choose and complete vocational programmes. In the 1994 reform, known as Reform 94, all vocational programmes were structured in a 2 + 2 model consisting of two years at school followed by two years of apprenticeship in a relevant company or workplace NOU (1991, 4); St.meld. nr. 33 (1991–92). VET education was organised into 13 programmes, each leading to different but presumably related vocations. The first year in each programme provided general studies within a vocational area, while the second year provided more opportunities for vocational specialisation. The reform meant that many types of vocational education programmes which previously had differed in length as well as in organisation were now incorporated into a common structure. Many vocational training programmes which previously were not included in the apprenticeship system were now given formal status as educational programmes for skilled workers.

Formal rights to education at upper secondary level were granted to everyone under the reform. Reform 94 was based on the good intentions of educational equality and an improved perception of VET, but it also created considerable challenges. Research showed that the main objection from companies, students and vocational teachers alike was that the education was too theory-based and failed to meet the competence needs of vocations and workplaces (Blichfeldt 1996; Støren, Skjersli, and Aamodt 1998). The research illustrates a dilemma in Norwegian VET. The aim of the reform was to achieve equal access to education for all, but as a result, the education became more standardised and generalised. Standardised, broad-based VET programmes have had a tendency to become less vocationally relevant and less respected in the labour market.

Some of these problems were addressed in a new reform, the Knowledge Promotion Reform of 2006, which still regulates Norwegian VET today. The 2 + 2 structure was retained. The number of vocational programmes was reduced from 13 to nine and now includes electricity and electronics, building and construction, healthcare, childhood and youth development, design, arts and crafts, media and communication, technical and industrial production, sales, service and tourism, restaurant and food processing, and agriculture, fishing and forestry (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2006). The first year in each programme leads towards a broad range of vocations within the respective fields. The second year, however, specialises in a smaller number of vocations.

Both the first and the second years contain three types of subjects: academic subjects, such as languages, mathematics and social subjects; vocational subjects directly related to the actual vocations; and in-depth vocational studies, where students have the opportunity to specialise in a specific vocation, preferably through placement periods in a company. The formal curricula for the academic subjects are provided in both vocational and academic programmes and are therefore called ‘common subjects’. One purpose has been to strengthen vocational students’ academic knowledge and to provide students with opportunities to transition to academic programmes should they wish to do so. The intention has also been to provide more and equal opportunities for higher education and to increase the status of VET programmes (St.meld. nr. 30 (2003–04)).

As a basis for the formal curricula in vocational subjects in the Knowledge Promotion reform, the tasks and competence needs in the vocations in each programme were analysed and described. This means that the formal curricula in vocational subjects are largely structured around subjects and learning outcomes concerning general work functions and tasks that are considered common to the respective vocations in the respective programmes. Under Reform 94 the curricula were more heavily structured around theoretical subjects and learning outcomes (Hiim 2013). One intention in the Knowledge Promotion reform was to make the curricula more practical, holistic and vocationally relevant (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2006).

However, given the large number of vocations included in each programme, the formulation of the learning outcomes necessarily becomes highly general. For instance, the curriculum for the programme Technical and Industrial Production (first year) is divided into the following three main areas or subjects: (1) technical services, (2) production and (3) documentation and quality. The curricula for other programmes have similar main areas. The following example of a formulated learning outcome from Design, Arts and Crafts is typical: ‘The student shall have competence in developing ideas to products and services as a base for his or her own production and entrepreneurship’ (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2006). The idea seems to be that it should be possible for vocational teachers and students to interpret and specify the learning outcomes in relation to each of the vocations included in the programme, which in this instance would include hairdressing, floral design, interior design, etc. The general work-based description of the learning outcomes makes it possible to organise teaching and learning based on practical tasks that can be related to theory (Hiim 2013). The curricula specifically state that practice-based learning, the integration of subjects and coherence between theory and practice are the main principles (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2006).

The subject Vocational In-depth Studies was introduced in the Knowledge Promotion reform. There had been no requirement for work-life practice in the former curricula for the school-based part of VET in the curricula from 1994. A key intention for the subject is that students should have opportunities to specialise in a vocation of their interest, preferably through on-the-job practice (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2007).

There are also formal curricula for each vocation in the apprenticeship part of VET, intended to ensure that apprentices obtain relevant practical-theoretical competence as skilled workers. As already mentioned, the curricula are based on analyses of tasks and competence demands in each vocation. Coherence between the content in the school-based and the apprenticeship parts of VET is an explicit principle in the formal curriculum frameworks (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2006). The companies that take on apprentices are formally committed to ensuring that the learning outcomes in the actual curriculum are covered. To meet this commitment, it is common for several companies to collaborate on organising a training office that helps facilitate the apprentice learning process. The apprenticeship ends with a formal examination, which usually consists of planning, carrying out and explaining orally and in writing a relatively extensive, authentic vocational task.

It can be concluded that key intentions in the Knowledge Promotion reform have been to respond to challenges in Reform 94 and to strengthen the quality and status of VET by emphasising vocational relevance in the formal curricula. Before discussing research on the Knowledge Promotion reform, I will first present some key aspects of Norwegian VET teacher education that are necessary to understand the quality of Norwegian VET.

VET teacher education in Norway

In Norway, most vocational teachers hold a trade certificate in their particular field of specialisation, such as plumbing, electrical installation or floristry, plus at least two years of practical experience and two years of higher vocational education at level 5 in the ISCED classification system (below university level) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2012). In addition, they must have one year of vocational practical-pedagogical education at level 6 (university level). However, many vocational teachers, especially in programmes and vocations that do not have an apprenticeship tradition, such as Service and Transport or Healthcare, Childhood and Youth Development, have a university education at bachelor level (6) in, for instance, nursing, engineering or economics. In addition, they must have one year (60 ECTs) of vocational practical-pedagogical education (6) (Grande et al. 2014).

Analyses of policy documents indicate that the political aim in Norway is to equate vocational teacher education with teacher education in other fields when it comes to extent and status (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2017). One of the main measures has been to establish a vocational teacher education programme for skilled workers at bachelor level, aimed at increasing the number of, as well as enhancing the competence of, teachers with vocational backgrounds. Possibilities for developing and elevating existing higher vocational education from level 5 to university level are also discussed. One intention is to strengthen the competence as well as the status of skilled workers and vocational teachers, and to avoid parents and students viewing vocational education as a ‘dead end’ when it comes to opportunities in higher education (Meld. St. 9 (9. 2016–17)).

The first vocational teacher education programmes at bachelor level were established in 2003. One idea has been that teachers with vocational backgrounds can themselves contribute to strengthening vocational relevance and status in the school-based part of the programmes. The content in vocational teacher education includes one component (60 ECTs) of in-depth studies in the student teacher’s own vocation. A second component (60 ECTs) includes the breadth of vocations in the programme and is specifically focused on teaching in the first year of VET. The third component (60 ECTs) includes vocational pedagogy and didactics, and corresponds to vocational practical-pedagogical education (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2013, 2015b).

Teachers with vocational teacher education are formally qualified for teaching certain subjects at lower secondary school level (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2013). This can be seen as one measure to strengthen practical knowledge in lower secondary school and the connection to vocational programmes at upper secondary level.

Vocational teachers with different types of teacher education have access to a research-based master’s programme in vocational pedagogy. On completing their degree, students are eligible to undertake a PhD programme in education science at Oslo Metropolitan University, where vocational pedagogy and vocational didactics are elective components. The main aims for these programmes have been to increase vocational teachers’ competence, stimulate research related to vocational education, and give vocational teachers the same opportunities as other teachers to undertake research education.

Enhancing the quality and status of VET teacher education and encouraging skilled workers to pursue teacher education are considered important political measures to strengthen the quality and relevance of VET in Norway (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2017). Research on VET teacher education is sparse, but some of the research on VET mentioned below deals with the qualifications of VET teachers.

Research on the current Norwegian VET model

Policy documents and national curricula for VET in the Knowledge Promotion reform are characterised by intentions of vocational relevance and equal status with academic programmes. However, research on the current Norwegian VET model points towards challenges related to both.

Extensive quantitative studies conducted by the Nordic Institute for Studies in Innovation, Research and Education (NIFU) in 2012 concluded that the dropout rate in Norwegian VET programmes was about the same as it had been before the Knowledge Promotion reform, that is, approximately 30 per cent, and that approximately 20 per cent chose to transfer to academic programmes. The dropout rate for academic programmes was approximately 25 per cent. Many students drop out of VET because they fail to secure an apprenticeship (Vibe et al. 2012). In general, these figures have remained stable, though with a slight increase in the number of students transferring to academic programmes. However, more recent figures show that 60 per cent of students starting VET completed after five years and 20 per cent dropped out. Twenty per cent transferred to academic programmes but many of these did not complete their education (Mogstad and Nyen 2016; Utdaningsdirektoratet 2019b). The dropout rate is still regarded as a social problem. The results from these studies indicate that the Knowledge Promotion reform has had little effect on the dropout and academic transition rates. The studies do not explain whether the reason is that the reform has not been implemented downwards in the system or that the measures taken to increase relevance and status have not worked.

Combined quantitative and qualitative studies conducted by the Norwegian Institute for Applied International Studies (Fafo) concern the implementation of the subject Vocational In-depth Studies and opportunities for students to find placements in vocational companies during the school-based part of VET (Nyen and Tønder 2012). The findings show that few students have access to placement periods in companies during their first year, which is contrary to the intentions behind the curricula. In-depth studies in a chosen vocation primarily take place through assignments at school or in the school workshop. Opportunities for work experience through placement periods are more common during the second year of the programmes. However, the researchers emphasise that a lack of coherence between school content and practical work experience is a problem: ‘An essential challenge in VET is to ensure that students experience coherence between what they learn at school and what they learn through practice periods in companies’ (Nyen and Tønder 2012, 9). The transition to apprenticeships is perceived to be difficult, and the apprentices feel that they ‘must learn everything over again’ (Nyen and Tønder 2012, 9). The study concludes that work-life practice strengthens students’ motivation and experience of relevance but also that many students lack opportunities to gain work experience in their chosen vocation. Part of the problem is that responsibility for contact between schools and companies is largely left to the individual vocational teachers, who receive little support from their leaders and local school authorities (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013; Aspøy and Tønder 2017).

Several studies also indicate that interpretations of the curriculum frameworks for vocational subjects vary greatly between programmes and between schools (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013; Olsen and Reegård 2013; Nore and Lahn 2013). Three types of interpretations stand out. At some schools and in some programmes the vocational subjects are organised as mandatory introductory modules in the most common vocations. This means that students in, for instance, the building and construction programme must learn a little about brickwork, carpentry, painting, plumbing, etc. The research findings show that many students find this quite meaningless. They want to concentrate on one or perhaps two vocations in which they are interested. Some students, such as one who had wanted to become a plumber since lower secondary school, received no real opportunity to learn about this vocation before he became an apprentice (Hiim 2013).

In some programmes and schools, the vocational subjects are largely organised around theoretical assignments and content. The theoretical content may have unclear and varying relevance to the actual vocations. One example is where students in the Service and Transport programme who wanted to become truck drivers had to learn about economics. Another example is where students in the Healthcare, Childhood and Youth Development programme who wanted to become youth workers had to learn about physiology and illnesses. There are many similar examples. The research shows that students find it quite meaningless to study theoretical content that is not related to the vocation in which they are interested. (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013).

There are also examples of interpretations where teachers differentiate the content of vocational subjects according to each student’s vocational interests. The teachers organise the content around the students’ plans for specialisation and relate it to practical work experience (Hiim 2013). I will come back to these examples below.

Results from several studies indicate that the vocational and pedagogical background of teachers influences their interpretation of the curriculum frameworks and their teaching of vocational subjects (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hansen and Haaland 2015; Hiim 2013; Aakernes 2018). Teachers with a professional university background, such as engineers, nurses or economists, tend to prioritise theoretical content. By contrast, teachers with an education and background as skilled workers prioritise practical tasks. However, they are inclined to favour the vocation of their own training at the expense of other vocations in the programme. The lack of knowledge about the breadth of vocations in programmes and of contact with corresponding vocational companies poses considerable challenges. Results from one study show that many vocational teachers want continuing education based on job training in their own vocation and in vocations included in the programme (Tønder and Aspøy 2017).

When it comes to academic subjects, some studies indicate that many vocational students do not find the content meaningful (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013, 2014). Students express the need for competence in, for instance, mathematics or languages in their future vocational work, but say that these needs are not met at school (Hiim 2013). The education authorities have initiated and supported an extensive national development project aimed at directing academic subjects towards vocational programmes, but no research-based evaluation of the project has been carried out (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2014–16). Since 2010, the principle of relating academic subjects to specific vocational education programmes is stated in Forskrift til opplæringslova (the Regulations relating to the Education Act), sections 1–3 (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2006); see also Meld. St. 28 (2015–16).

Overall, research on the Knowledge Promotion reform suggests that principles of relevance and coherence in the policy documents and the formal curricula are only implemented to a limited extent. There are considerable challenges related to collaboration between vocational schools and companies, opportunities for specialisation, and relating academic as well as vocational subjects to specific vocations. These challenges are reflected in the discontent expressed by students and employers (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013, 2014).

A study on increasing relevance in Norwegian VET

At Oslo Metropolitan University (OMU), a study was carried out from 2007 to 2011 based on experiments aimed at strengthening relevance in Norwegian VET within the existing model. The results from the study concur with the results from other studies regarding challenges in Norwegian VET. However, the results also show how vocational relevance in the school-based part of VET can be strengthened (Hiim 2013, 2015). The experiments were conducted in close cooperation with a group of 30 vocational teachers participating in an in-service master’s programme in vocational pedagogy.

In collaboration with their colleagues and school leaders, the teachers organised opportunities for work practice in a chosen vocation for their first- and second-year students. Professional and social preparation of the practice was emphasised, along with contact between teachers and instructors in the actual companies, before, during and after the practice periods. Before starting their practice period, the students were divided into groups based on their choice of vocational specialisation and worked on assignments and tasks related to their respective actual vocations. After the period of practice, the teachers organised individual and collective reflection on the practice experience. The teachers also tried to actively use students’ experiences from practice in their teaching. The results show quite unambiguously how motivating and meaningful this kind of practice is to most students. Typical statements are: ‘It’s been very stimulating’; ‘I think it is meaningful to learn about the vocation in practice’; ‘I could not have been more pleased’ (Hiim 2013, 326). The students also emphasise that work-life practice is necessary for making an informed choice of occupation: ‘The experience from work practice has helped me become more certain of my choice of occupation and education’ (Hiim 2013, 249).

In many of the teachers’ experiments, all the vocational subjects were integrated with and organised around the students’ practice experiences. The students’ reactions are unambiguously positive, such as ‘The work I do in the company and the work I do at school are somehow connected. That’s what makes me learn’ (Hiim 2013, 336).

In the OMU experiments, academic teachers were responsible for relating academic subjects to tasks in the specific vocations. For example, lessons in mathematics were used to perform important calculations in work practice or in the school workshop. Such tasks could involve calculating the quantity and price of food for a dinner or the right dimensions of materials needed to build a roof; lessons in English were used to read manuals that students needed for their work; in Norwegian lessons, students wrote authentic work reports, etc. Again, the results were positive: ‘When the subjects are directed towards something that’s interesting, that is, the vocation, it’s ok. When they are directed towards the vocation, and I see that, it’s motivating’ (Hiim 2013, 307). One challenge was that many academic teachers know little about vocational programmes and were reluctant to collaborate with vocational teachers. Analyses of the curricula for the education of academic teachers at different levels show that vocational education is barely mentioned (Hiim 2013; Kunnskapsdepartementet 2010, 2015a).

The experiments also revealed many challenges, some of which are mentioned in other studies. Some companies were reluctant to receive students, especially companies in vocational areas without an apprenticeship tradition. Sometimes the companies were unable to arrange sufficiently relevant work tasks and learning opportunities for the students. The schools’ time schedules could make it difficult to arrange workplace practice and integrate subjects around practice (Hiim 2013). The vocational teachers who participated in the project managed to overcome many of these challenges. The results show that vocational students find their education vocationally relevant and meaningful when the content is systematically organised around authentic vocational tasks and work-practice experiences. The companies and instructors who participated in the experiments were positive about collaborating with the schools when it was well planned and when the schools followed up on the collaboration. As with several other studies, this study also indicates that work-life practice strengthens students’ opportunities for apprenticeship (Hiim 2013).

Based on the experiences and results from the above study, a subsequent, similar study was initiated in 2016–2019. Preliminary results indicate that structures for systematic collaboration between schools and companies can contribute strongly to a more vocationally relevant curriculum (Hiim and Tønder 2018). Results from both studies indicate that it is possible to implement the principles of vocational relevance and coherence in the Knowledge Promotion reform to a considerable extent and that it makes the education more meaningful to students as well as to teachers and instructors in companies. However, there are major challenges to establishing traditions that separate practical and theoretical learning arenas and subjects.

The next section presents some recent changes related to VET and a new reform that partly builds on the research on the Knowledge Promotion reform discussed above. This is followed by a section on international research conducted on issues related to relevance and coherence in VET.

Recent changes and a new VET reform in 2020

In Norwegian education policy, coherence between different levels and programmes in the education system as a whole is seen as related to a principle of the equal right to education St.meld. nr. 44 (2008–09); Meld. St. 20 (2012–13). A challenge concerning VET in this connection is the dominance of academic, theoretical knowledge in primary and especially lower secondary school. To meet the challenge, some new, more practical elective subjects have been included in the curriculum for lower secondary school (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2015a). A subject called Career Choices has also become part of the curriculum and gives students the opportunity to become acquainted with different programmes at upper secondary level, vocational programmes included (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2015b).

Furthermore, new regulations allow students the opportunity to transfer directly from academic to vocational programmes after one year (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2018b) and new programmes have been established that combine vocational and academic subjects in ways that allow students to complete their education as skilled workers and gain formal access to higher education without having to spend extra time doing so (St.meld. nr. 44 2008–09; Meld. St. 9 9. 2016–17). The rationale is that opportunities for direct access to higher education will increase the status of VET. It has also been argued that flexible opportunities to transfer between programmes make it easier for individual students to find their future career.

A new education reform is now under preparation and will be implemented in 2020. The 2 + 2 model will be retained as the main model in VET (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2018a). One important argument is that broad vocational programmes give students across the country opportunities to undertake upper secondary education without having to move from home. Another is that students who are uncertain of their vocational career choice have time at school before having to choose a vocation. However, the reform will bring about some structural changes aimed at reducing the breadth of the vocational programmes and at increasing opportunities for specialisation for both the first and second years of the school-based part. More extensive and stronger cooperation between vocational schools and companies and stronger vocational relevance in both vocational and common academic subjects are key principles in the reform. (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2017). The question is whether principles concerning vocational relevance in the new reform, which were also emphasised in the previous one, will be more extensively implemented this time.

International research on VET, which is discussed in the next section, shows that issues concerning vocational relevance and coherence are important in VET systems in many countries.

International research on VET

International research on VET shows that vocational relevance in the school-based parts and coherence between educational content at school and professional work are important issues across models.

For instance, Gessler (2017) refers to an extensive quantitative study of the German dual system, showing that collaboration between schools and companies is almost non-existent. His conclusion is that German VET is more of a parallel system than a dual system. The results indicate that there is a lack of coherence between what students learn at school and what they learn at the workplace. Gessler (2017) also points towards similar challenges in Swiss VET.

Young (2004) addressed problems of coherence caused by insufficient cooperation between learning at school and in companies in English VET. According to Young, there is a tendency for the teachers to want to prioritise theoretical scientific subjects, while the companies want their workers to have competence in performing specific, sometimes basic, instrumental tasks. Young argues that the lack of theoretical understanding of the work may obstruct professional development and eventually lead to stagnation. To meet the problem, theoretical, scientific subjects must be re-contextualised in relation to vocational performance.

Louw (2017) and Wahlgren and Aarkrog (2012) have studied the transfer of knowledge between learning arenas in Danish VET. Both emphasise the importance of continuous cooperation between schools and companies aimed at creating conditions for coherence and the transfer of knowledge between the school and the workplace.

Much international research is concerned with developing approaches in VET that are based on a multi-dimensional and holistic concept of vocational competence, where coherence between learning arenas and between practice and theory is the key principle. Research and development projects in different countries are aimed at creating such approaches. Concepts such as innovation pedagogy, design pedagogy and hybrid learning concern the development of education models and content that cross the boundary between school and work life (Cremers et al. 2016; Kairisto-Mertanen et al. 2012; Zitter, Hoeve, and de Bruijn 2016). Proximity to the vocational tasks and educational content that are clearly related to vocational performance is essential in these approaches (Aakernes and Hiim 2019).

However, even if a more holistic understanding of vocational competence and education is emerging, epistemological traditions of seeing theory and practice as separate remain strong. In the next sections, I will discuss vocational relevance, coherence and status in school-based Norwegian VET based on a holistic concept of competence.

Discussion: strengthening vocational relevance, coherence and status in school-based Norwegian VET

This final section contains a summarising discussion of opportunities and obstacles for relevance, coherence and status in Norwegian VET. I will look briefly at possible reasons why so many students choose VET programmes and why students transfer to academic programmes or drop out. Contradictions concerning relevance and coherence in the VET reforms are discussed, followed by a discussion of coherence between lower levels in the education system and vocational education at upper secondary level. Focus is then directed at the role of work practice in the school-based part of VET, and at the importance of relating vocational as well as academic subjects to work-life experience. A discussion of access to education at the university level from vocational programmes is followed by questions about how VET teacher education can strengthen relevance and status in VET.

Possible reasons for choosing or leaving VET

The reason why as much as half of Norwegian youth cohorts choose VET programmes may relate to the right of a minimum of three to four years of education in all programmes, joint schools for academic and vocational programmes, flexible opportunities for transferring between programmes, and opportunities for further education at university level. However, more research is needed to investigate these suppositions.

Extensive qualitative studies indicate that many VET students are disappointed because they find the education too general and too theoretical and lose sight of the vocations they are interested in (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013; Nyen and Tønder 2012). There are strong indications that too wide a separation between school and work and between practical and theoretical learning arenas and subjects are reasons for discontent and loss of motivation. However, it is important to emphasise that decisions to drop out have many complex explanations that are not discussed in this article, e.g. psychological and social problems.

Contradictions in the curriculum in VET reforms

As mentioned, the 2 + 2 model that was introduced in Reform 94 led to a high degree of standardisation, which in turn led to generalisation and theorisation of the curriculum in the school-based part of VET. The structure and the curriculum were to a large extent characterised by what Schön (1983) describes as a technical understanding of knowledge and competence.

The Knowledge Promotion reform seems to be more inspired by a holistic concept of competence, but there are many contradictions in the reform documents and in the curricula. The 2 + 2 structure of VET was retained, but the curricula were changed. The curricula in vocational subjects are structured around vocational functions, but the functions are divided into separate subjects (Hiim 2013). The curricula for the academic, common subjects are just as theoretical as before the reform, and are not related to the vocations. Even though vocational work practice is included as a subject, many students do not receive the opportunity of practice (Nyen and Tønder 2012). General ideas of vocational relevance and coherence are not adequately followed up in the curricula for specific subjects. Besides, the labour market is not sufficiently committed to providing students with practice. The conclusion is that the formal guidelines are contradictory. At a general level, they emphasise a holistic view of competence, but at a more concrete level, they are still partly characterised by the distinction between theory and practice (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013).

Coherence between lower secondary school and vocational programmes at upper secondary level

Even though a few hours of practical subjects have been included in the curriculum for lower secondary school, the national curriculum framework for primary, and especially lower secondary, education mainly consists of theoretical subjects. The curriculum provides few opportunities for students to be acquainted with skilled practical work and vocational education (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2019a).

The curriculum frameworks for the education of primary school teachers and teachers of general subjects contain nothing specific about vocational education as a part of the education system (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2010, 2015a). It can be concluded that theoretical, academic knowledge is prioritised in the lower parts of the education system and in general teacher education at the expense of other dimensions of knowledge and competence.

Work-life practice as the basis of vocational relevance

Results from several studies on Norwegian VET show that collaboration between schools and companies during the two school-based years is limited in scope as well as quality (Nyen and Tønder 2012; Hiim 2013). At the same time, the results indicate that practical experience is a prerequisite for understanding vocational and theoretical concepts and for developing holistic vocational competence (Hiim 2013, 2015). The importance of authentic practical tasks to which theoretical concepts can be related is also emphasised in the international research on VET (Koenen, Dochy, and Berghmans 2015).

The conclusion is that in order to strengthen the quality and status of VET, there is a need to develop permanent and formal collaborative structures between schools and companies. There is also a need to know more about how such structures can be developed and about what specifically is meant by coherence between work practice and educational content in specific vocations and programmes.

Opportunities for specialisation within broad VET programmes

As mentioned, studies indicate that students do not find it meaningful to divide their time between the many vocations in a broad programme or to spend it on general theory that is supposed to be relevant for several vocations (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013; Olsen and Reegård 2013). The students themselves state that having opportunities to develop competence in a specific vocation, based on authentic tasks related to instruction and theoretical concepts, is the best way to learn. However, many students also state that they need to try out several vocations in order to choose their future career. This is an argument against forcing students to specialise too early and, possibly, in favour of retaining broad programmes in the first year (Hiim 2013). Research based on experiments of increasing relevance in Norwegian VET shows that specialisation within broad programmes is possible and can be successful, but that it is quite demanding in terms of teacher competence and workload and of organisation of time schedules (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013).

Relating academic subjects to vocational tasks

As already mentioned, relating academic subjects to vocational education programmes has become a principle in regulations governing curricula (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2006). This means that there is a need for analyses to determine what kind of knowledge and competence in, for instance, mathematics, English, Norwegian or social science, is relevant for tasks in specific vocations. Norwegian and international research indicate that there is a need for development projects and research aimed at strengthening a holistic, practical-theoretical conceptual base in the respective vocations (Heusdens et al. 2016; Hiim 2013, 2017; Young 2004).

Strengthening opportunities for apprenticeships

Several studies have shown that close cooperation between schools and companies on practice for students in both years strengthens students’ opportunities for apprenticeships. Well-organised practice in the school-based part also makes the transition from school to apprenticeship more coherent for the students (Nyen and Tønder 2012; Hiim 2013; Olsen and Reegård 2013). More than 80 per cent of apprentices complete their education and obtain a journeyman’s certificate (Utdanningsdirektoratet 2019b). There are complex reasons for the 20-per-cent dropout rate, but we know that some students feel poorly prepared and do not think they learned enough about their vocation at school (Nyen and Tønder 2012; Hiim 2013).

Access to higher education at the university level

One means of raising the status of VET has been to strengthen opportunities for direct access to education at university level (St.meld. nr. 44 (2008–09); Meld. St. 9 (9. 2016–17)). However, there is a risk of changes being made in terms of academic rather than vocational education. For instance, it can be asked whether the extension of general academic subjects in VET provides students with the most important qualifications for admission to vocational programmes at university level, such as nursing or engineering programmes. There is also a risk of prioritising general, discipline-based research over research related to the vocations when raising VET programmes from level 5 to level 6. An alternative would be to combine access to higher education with the development of programmes that are based on a more holistic concept of vocational competence, education and research, where theoretical and practical components are highly integrated.

The quality of vocational teacher education

An important aim in vocational teacher education is that student teachers develop competence in cooperating with companies and in relating school subjects to vocational tasks and practical experience. Studies indicate that there is a great need for continuing education for vocational teachers in this field, particularly for teachers who lack backgrounds as skilled workers (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013).

Another important issue is to stimulate research and theory development in the vocations on the premises of vocational practice. Master and PhD programmes in vocational pedagogy contribute to this to some extent. Raising the level of conventional higher vocational education programmes to university level could be an important contribution if the programmes were directed towards research in and on the vocations.

Conclusion: development towards a more holistic VET?

One question is whether efforts to increase the status of Norwegian VET have been based on adaptation to academic educational traditions rather than on epistemological insights into how vocational competence is constituted and developed.

Analyses indicate that there are intentions to develop a more holistic vocational education in the Knowledge Promotion reform. The same intentions are emphasised and further developed in the new reform to be implemented in 2020. However, there are considerable contradictions in the Knowledge Promotion reform. On the one hand, the explicit principles are that the programmes shall be holistic, coherent, vocationally relevant and practice-based. On the other hand, holistic vocational functions are divided into different subjects, academic or common subjects are not explicitly related to the vocations, and the formal guidelines for collaboration between schools and companies are so weak that many students do not receive work-life practice (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Nyen and Tønder 2012).

Studies indicate that general principles in the formal curriculum of integrating subjects, learning arenas and theory and practice are only partially followed up at the regional and local levels of the education system (Bødtker-Lund et al. 2017; Hiim 2013; Nore and Lahn 2013; Hansen and Haaland 2015; Nyen and Tønder 2012). On the other hand, several studies show that it is possible to realise these principles to some extent within the 2 + 2 model and that students find meaning and motivation when they are (Hansen and Haaland 2015; Hiim 2013). However, it is quite demanding for schools and teachers.

It is fair to conclude that many of the challenges and contradictions in Norwegian VET are based on traditions that are deeply rooted in our education system: the separation of learning and work, of knowledge and skills, and of theory and practice. A holistic understanding of vocational competence and education is emerging but is not yet fully developed. There is still some way to go in improving relevance, coherence and status on VET’s own premises, and, ultimately, in strengthening the vocations.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.