The powerful influence of connections: exploring the effects of wasta informal networks on human resource development in Kuwait

ABSTRACT

This research examines the consequences of engaging with wasta while practicing fair and ethical human resource management (HRM) in organizations in Kuwait. Weak ties have been established to be a powerful positive force for job seekers in the Western world, but in the Middle Eastern context, powerful close connections known as wasta exert a crucial impact on the pursuit of employment. We explore the relationship between wasta, HRM, and human resource development (HRD) in Kuwait using social exchange theory. Based on 24 semi-structured interviews, the study determines that the outcomes identified with wasta in businesses are considerable. Due to its disruption of standard HRM practices, wasta not only influences access to employment but also impacts employees’ professional development and their entire performance throughout their time with an organization. By unpacking this powerful but previously seldom explored phenomenon, this study expands conceptual frameworks on social influence and personal connections in the workplace, particularly regarding wasta. Additionally, it provides recommendations for lessening the undesirable outcomes of wasta and improving employee and organizational evolution in the fair practice of HRM.

KEYWORDS:

• Human resource development
• human resource management
• social capital theory
• wasta
• Kuwait

1. Introduction

In recent years, connections in different working environments have been crucial in influencing organisational performance, as personal connections shape professional commitments. As indicated by Turban and Daniel (2012), the rising connotation of personal connections inside the workspace is confounded by the elevation in extensiveness of the informal networks that individuals make outside their work environments. On this note, the vast majority of people worldwide obtain jobs, training, positive assessments, career development, and more because of their strong associations (Rachel, 2004). Wasta is a set of personal networks based on family or social connections in which power and influence are used to accomplish many things (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a). As wasta evolves, it becomes deeply rooted in the culture of a society (Smith et al., 2012) resulting in a set of sociocultural values encouraging people to use wasta and making it eventually acceptable to deploy in organisations (Alasfour, 2019). This paper addresses the following research question: does the practice of wasta affect human resource development (HRD), particularly career development, by interfering with human resource management (HRM) procedures?

In Kuwait, wasta has become a tool that people with connections use to get recruited for various positions regardless of their qualifications (Al-Enzi, 2017). It is considered a family obligation, a normal way of doing business, and a customary approach through which people maintain status (Samara et al., 2019). This practice puts pressure on employees as well as on managers who seek to have a fair and equitable HRM (Nadeem & Kayani, 2019). As a result, managers and employees may carry out their tasks while caught in the middle of what is expected from them by those who ask for wasta, their professional convictions, sound HRM practices, and standard HRD guidelines.

However, the emergent tensions between the practice of wasta, on the one hand, and how fair HRM influences HRD and specifically career development, on the other hand, have not yet received sufficient attention from scholars. Previous studies of wasta have not considered to what extent the phenomenon impacts HRD in the Middle East. Cunningham and Sarayrah (1994) denoted wasta as either a person or a practice of mediation or intercession and securing favours in a manner perceived as inimical to the development of Middle Eastern economies, but their work did not delve deeply into either HRM processes or HRD implications. Two decades later, Islam (2004) assessed sifarish and Hutchings and Weir (2006b) analysed guanxi and wasta all as family-based, trust-building, favour-exchanging customs in Pakistan, China, and the Middle East, respectively. This line of research provided a broader historical and cultural context emphasising these forms of connections as widespread (Smith et al., 2012). Later research linked wasta more specifically to issues of leadership, corruption, and injustice, while noting the ascension value to its beneficiaries within organisations (Berger et al., 2019). Recently, it was found that wasta, while traditionally common in Saudi Arabia, could be countered by rising awareness of organisational justice practices in other areas of the world (Harbi et al., 2017) alongside a comprehensive roadmap for change of the social and professional landscape (Alsarhan, 2022). This paper addresses the HRM practices and HRD implications within such a roadmap.

From a social exchange theoretical perspective, absent a continued deeper understanding of specific HRM and HRD manifestations related to wasta, managers and employees can only respond to rather than strategize ahead of emergent tensions. Wasta and HRM practices are important and interdependent – both have been vital pathways of interaction within organisations in the Middle East (Ramady, 2016) – and thus both need to be accommodated for a virtuous cycle of HRD to flourish. Based on qualitative semi-structured interviews, our findings suggest that in a culture of wasta, developing fair and ethical HRM functions while sustaining HRD can be challenging, as shown in the context of Kuwait.

Hence, this study fills a gap in the literature by addressing variations in HRM practices in settings where wasta exists and by acknowledging means by which organisations can manage the interplay of wasta and HRM. The paper begins with the theoretical background and literature review, followed by the methodology, findings, discussion and conclusions, including a set of practicable recommendations.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Mediating processes in HRM practices and organizational performance

While organisations can strategically enhance performance through SHRM and SHRD (Gould-Williams, 2003), scholars have also identified mediating processes affecting firm outcomes (Alagaraja, 2013; Brown et al., 2019; Islami & Mustafa, 2023; Sung & Choi, 2014; Tabak et al., 2023; Tracey et al., 2001). These mediators are ‘(a) increasing employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities, (b) empowering employees to act, and (c) motivating them to do so’ (Combs et al., 2006, p. 503). Therefore, managers should repeatedly re-evaluate HRM and HRD towards improving organisational efficiency and performance (e.g. Gould-Williams, 2003; Wang et al., 2020). As such, acknowledging organisational performance is critical when the consequences of wasta for HRM and HRD are explored. The rationale is that the ‘success’ and ‘failure’ of enhancing organisational performance through HRM practices depend strongly on HRD such as employees’ skills, training, commitment, enthusiasm, and engagement (Harbi et al., 2017; Tracey et al., 2001). A thriving organisation implements its HRM practices effectively and accomplishes its aims efficiently by using all available assets (Otley, 1999).

However, the widespread use of wasta, such as in Kuwait, prevents organisations from fulfilling HRM practices in a manner that enhances organisational performance (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1994). Although wasta holds a closely connected social network together, it impedes the effective conduct of HRM and the accomplishment of organisational goals as a result (Gardner, 2010, p. 154). summarises the pressures of wasta: ‘When I say that I have a wasta in the Traffic Directorate, it means that I’ve got somebody there who can help me cut through the red tape […] It means you can get it done if you have a way – an intermediary way, a way to get in, or someone inside the system’. Organizations that operate in this way are valuing emotional relationships over cognitive trust, and social connections over legal agreements (Demirbag et al., 2003). To explore further, the subsequent sections address HRM and HRD practices, social exchange theory, social capital theory and their linkages with wasta.

2.2. Human resource management and human resource development

Among other perspectives (e.g. Becker & Gerhart, 1996; Delaney & Huselid, 1996; Sun et al., 2007), Schuler and Jackson (1987) characterise HRM as an amalgamation of the knowledge, skills and energy of the individuals who form the workforce of an organisation. HRM is the strategy that draws in, develops, impacts, and maintains employees to guarantee the functioning and endurance of an organisation (Boxall & Purcell, 2022). However, HR also encompasses underpinning foundational characteristics such as physical and emotional health, intellectual capabilities, personalities, and motivations (Boxall & Purcell, 2022, p.4).

HRM comprises an internally consistent set of policies and practices to ensure that the ‘human resources’ – the people of the organisation – achieve the organisational objectives (Delaney & Huselid, 1996). Management activities that enable an organisation to orient its ‘human resources’ to improve specific proficiencies, provide new information, and maintain a competitive advantage can therefore be labelled as HRM practices (e.g. Minbaeva, 2005; Posthuma et al., 2013). Four common practices (i.e. activities) have emerged: HR planning, performance appraisal, reward systems, and career development (Jime´nez-Jime´nez & Sanz-Valle, 2005; Laursen & Foss, 2003; Shipton, 2006).

HR planning refers to analysing employer needs and hiring individuals who best fit the workforce of an organisation. These activities aim to create efficiencies, establish hierarchy, and cultivate teams (Darroch & McNaughton, 2002). Performance appraisal refers to assessing employee performance in accomplishing organisational goals effectively and urging under-performers to enhance performance and fulfil key performance indicators (Armstrong & Taylor, 2020). Reward systems refer to activities that utilise awards and recognition to elevate employees’ performance in an organisation to enhance organisational performance (Schuler & Jackson, 1987). Such activities, for instance, compensate performing employees to maintain (and gradually exceed) expectations (Schaubroeck et al., 2008). Career development means contributing to employee career goals while offsetting employee professional objectives with corporate hierarchical objectives (Armstrong & Taylor, 2020; Jacobs & Washington 2003). Such activities (i) encourage commitment and productivity and help in distinguishing the employees in an organisation, and (ii) assist employees with getting progressively dynamic and effective feedback in their professional development (Orpen, 1994).

However, researchers concluded that a high-performance organisation does not survive solely on HRM but also on HRD such as individual development, organisational development, career development and performance improvement (Abdullah, 2009; Hamlin & Stewart 2011; Richman, 2015). In contrast to HRM, HRD promotes employee learning opportunities and supports behavioural change (Abdullah, 2009; Tabak et al., 2023). In essence, organisational or individual development is the main focus of HRD (Kreismann & Talaulicar, 2021; Yoon et al., 2021), and individual and organisational development are related. Employees must be given learning opportunities to enhance performance, which in turn promotes organisational effectiveness (Brown et al., 2019; Jacobs & Washington, 2003; Sung & Choi, 2014).

It has also been argued that when learning activities are offered, it helps in the development of key competencies, which employees can use to improve their current job performance and advance their future careers (Al Balushi et al., 2021; Desimone et al., 2002; Yoon et al. 2021). Thus, HRD activities aim to achieve overall high performance by enhancing individual performance and improving organisational effectiveness and productivity (Abdullah, 2009; Brown et al., 2019; Islami and Mustafa, 2023); Kadiresan et al., 2015).

HRM practices are therefore an umbrella for activities associated with people management in an organisation (Boxall & Purcell 2022), and HRD is focused on learning and outcomes assessments to enhance individual, team, work process, and organisational performance (Shuck, 2011; Swanson & Holton, 2009; Valentin, 2014).

2.3. Exploring the connections of HRD and HRM amidst ‘wasta’ dynamics

The relationship between HRD and HRM in the context of ‘wasta’ involves a complex interplay of organisational and sociocultural factors, with significant implications for human capital management. HRD focuses on developing employee skills and organisational learning through strategic initiatives like training, skill development, and career advancement, as explained by Lundgren et al. (2023). Conversely, HRM encompasses personnel management tasks such as recruitment, performance evaluation, and compensation.

In regions like Kuwait, wasta significantly influences organisational practices and employee behaviour, impacting HRM processes by prioritising personal connections over merit-based criteria in recruitment and promotion. This bias can create perceptions of bias among employees, undermining morale, and commitment. Additionally, wasta can hinder equitable access to HRD opportunities, disadvantaging employees without influential connections and hindering skill development and career progression.

The connection of wasta with HRD and HRM highlights the importance for organisations to manage these dynamics carefully. To address the impact of wasta, it’s essential to promote transparent and merit based HRM practices, provide equal access to developmental resources, and foster a work culture based on inclusiveness and fairness. In essence, the interplay between HRD, HRM, and wasta defines a complex landscape, where organisational effectiveness depends on navigating socio-cultural influences, organisational practices, and human resource development imperatives with discernment and integrity.

The congruence or incongruence of HRD role perceptions profoundly influences organisational practices, strategies, and outcomes (Lundgren et al., 2023). Understanding and addressing these perceptions are essential for optimising the effectiveness of HRD efforts and fostering a positive organisational climate conducive to growth and success. The connection between HRD and HRM may revolve around the interplay and congruence between these domains. For example, the effectiveness of HRD initiatives may depend on the support and alignment of HRM practices. Similarly, perceptions of HRD roles may influence HRM strategies and vice versa, highlighting the interconnectedness of these functions within organisational contexts. If wasta exists within an organisation, it can significantly impact the points mentioned in the analysis of HRD role perceptions. For instance, wasta may distort alignment with organisational goals and strategies by favouring individuals with personal connections over those best suited for HRD initiatives, leading to misalignment and inequitable distribution of resources. Not to mention, Wasta may undermine strategic decision-making by influencing talent management strategies and succession planning, leading to misinformed decisions and ineffective resource allocation.

Therefore, the existence of wasta within an organisation can exacerbate incongruences in HRD role perceptions, leading to a range of negative consequences, including misalignment with organisational goals, decreased employee engagement and morale, impaired strategic decision-making, compromised organisational culture, and reduced performance and productivity. Addressing wasta is essential to mitigate its detrimental effects on HRD and HRM practices and foster a fair and inclusive organisational environment conducive to employee development and organisational success.

2.4. Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the most theoretical concepts used to understand organisational behaviour by depicting how different assets can be exchanged by certain standards and how they can deliver high-quality connections (see Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Social exchange relationships (SERs) are created when supervisors care for their employees and in this manner produce positive outcomes. All in all, SERs intercede between fair exchanges among connections and connections that produce proficient work conduct and positive employee perspectives. One of the fundamental standards of SET is that connections develop over time into dedication, trust, mutual commitment and responsibility. The idea of reciprocity within an exchange is separated by three types of commonalities: (a) reciprocity as an interdependent exchange, (b) reciprocity as a folk belief, and (c) reciprocity as a norm and individual orientation.

‘Reciprocity as interdependent’ features dependable connections, where one party’s activity reflects another’s behaviour (Al-Enzi, 2017). This is due to exchanges needing a”bidirectional exchange, something must be given, and something returned” (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005, pg. 876); consequently, it is perpetual and excludes precise bargaining (Molm, 2003). Conversely, ‘reciprocity as a folk belief’ guarantees that individuals to some degree acknowledge that at one point, all exchanges will reach a fair equilibrium. Individuals who are not helpful will confront future consequences and those who are useful will be compensated (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). However, ‘reciprocity as a norm and individual orientation’ has been seen as a social commitment, as well as a cultural obligation and individuals who do not obey, are disciplined (Al-Enzi, 2017). The principal distinction between reciprocity as a ‘norm’ and ‘folk belief’ is that ‘norm’ characterises how individuals ought to act and those that fall under this class are committed to acting correspondingly (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005).

2.5. The link between social exchange theory and wasta

Wasta and social exchange theory share many common purposes. Like SET, wasta connections form long-term relationships that signify reliability, trust, and mutual commitment (Al- Enzi, 2017). For that to happen, wasta falls under the ‘reciprocity as a norm and individual orientation rule of exchange. The motivation behind this is that wasta is considered by certain people to be a commitment to satisfaction and when they are part of the wasta cycle, they are obligated to proceed with the correspondence cycle through in-group gain or status consistency.

In other words, SET and wasta are fundamentally embedded in the special interaction of two people. They both highlight leader-member relationships and organisational support that develops consistently through exchanges resulting from the reciprocity guideline (Nie & Lamsa, 2015); hence, underlining the critical nature of associations between individuals. Subsequently, an excellent relationship that incorporates the qualities of trust, commitment, and respect is exceptionally valued in SET theory and wasta (Al-Enzi, 2017).

In conclusion, social exchange theory and wasta simulate that trust, responsibility, and association are supported through employees’ collaboration since it depends on reciprocity norms. Such standards view appreciation, empowerment, interest in human resources, and others as favours to be reimbursed. To further understand how wasta might also influence the fair and ethical practices of HRM and HRD, the social capital theory will be discussed. The justification for including social capital in the research is that wasta is one type of social capital (Kropf & Newbury-Smith, 2016) and knowing how social capital impacts HRM as a whole, given past examinations in various countries, would give clear directions to see whether comparable outcomes would be delivered when it is applied in Kuwait.

2.6. Social capital theory

Social capital is a fundamental theory in explaining how social constructs and informal connections impact political, social, and occupational practices (Ali et al., 2015). It is employed to clarify the link between wasta, organisational behaviour, HRM and HRD (Leana & Buren, 1999). Like other scholars (e.g. Dess & Shaw, 2001; Jiang & Liu, 2015), the researcher, therefore, highlights the significant role of the ‘social capital’ in conducting HRM practices as a source of enhancing organisational performance and human resource development. The rationale is that social capital is acknowledged to play a crucial part in influencing an organisation’s development (Jiang & Liu, 2015). It is an asset that emerges from civic responsibility, and it constructs network collisions and helps individuals increase a feeling of connection through membership and shared work on civic projects (Putnam, 1995). It can fall under any of three classifications: intellectual capital, human capital, and organisational capital.

The hypothesis behind social capital is to give advantages to others by taking benefits of assets/resources inserted through such connections. According to Narayan and Cassidy (2001, p. 60) ‘to possess social capital, a person must be related to others, and it is these others, not himself, who is the actual source of his/her advantage’. We, therefore, argue that social capital is a source of information (i.e. a potential source of augmentation), social control, kinship and preferential treatments that could act as a supporter and a strategy for decreasing risks (Hutchings & Weir, 2006b). It influences an organisation’s performance to the extent of improving the organisation’s capacity and adds to its development when utilised correctly (Matthews & Marzec, 2012).

2.7. Social capital, wasta, HRM and HRD

The interplay of wasta with the broader concept of social capital is profound, because wasta intrinsically is a form of social capital, or what could alternatively be termed social influence (Adler & Kwon, 2002). It is a set of relationships and reciprocal understandings and actions that must be nurtured and maintained. Granovetter (1973) established that weak ties have a particularly powerful benefit to jobseekers in obtaining referrals beyond their core networks. We build on Granovetter and subsequent scholars (e.g. Jack et al., 2004) by reasserting the power of strong connections in helping to obtain positions and promotions. These strong and weak tie outlooks are complementary. By emphasising social capital as deriving from shared values and resources, with positive ramifications attendant on social interconnections, Portes (1998) has also been pivotal in positing social capital as fundamental to sociological theory, and by extension to human resource management and development. Our conceptualisation of wasta builds on Portes (1998) by acknowledging common values, although our research demonstrates that the actions ensuing from those values can benefit those in the relationship while having a detrimental impact on those not privy to the same social circle and resources (Metz et al., 2022). Those excluded may share the same core cultural values, including belief in wasta in a general sense even while not benefiting from it in specific circumstances. Hence wasta manifests as a deeply ingrained cultural phenomenon. Consequently, wasta, while benefiting individuals, and while linked to social status, as crucial in the studies of Bourdieu (1984), is also a community level phenomenon, as noted in the social capital work of Putnam (1993).

Wasta in our conceptualisation inherently depends on reciprocity and exchanges of favours, and we posit a strong connection between the benefits of wasta, as a form of social capital, and career outcomes, as a form of human capital. Varying from earlier work such as Granovetter (1973) looking at impacts at the individual level, wasta in the present vantage must always ultimately have a bilateral or multilateral effect. In this manner, wasta aligns with the structuralist and network-oriented aspects of social capital as seen in the seminal research of Burt (1997), who specifically looked at the higher rewards accruing to managers with higher social capital in organisations and that their social capital derived from embeddedness within a structural network of professional and personal affiliations.

In general, HRM and HRD are known to affect employees’ attitudes and behaviours (Aggarwal et al., 2007). Employees are expected to maintain and/or exceed expectations in their performance towards accomplishing organisations’ objectives (Schaubroeck et al., 2008). Alongside expectations come employees’ development: non-discriminatory treatment, satisfactory rewards, professional stability, promotional and advancement opportunities, training, and so forth (Aggarwal et al., 2007). According to Han et al. (2021), engagement has a role in shaping the relation of employment resources, e.g. quality of work and performance. If an organisation provides their staff with a comprehensive set of labour resources that facilitate learning, development and reaching goals, they will be more engaged and less at risk of leaving (Albrecht & Marty, 2020).

However, ‘justice’ is rarely linked with the presence of social capital (Fu, 2015). Employees may feel double-crossed and irritated by their organisation when they do not get guaranteed advancement when performing excellent work. Because of unfulfilled understandings, an individual might be bound to detect misleading and ‘bad’ behaviour that can affect their future execution and relationship with their organisation (Qambar, 2015). A connection between certain types of social capital and conducting HRM practices either positively or negatively, which in turn impacts HRD, is therefore drawn in the literature. Nepotism, a social capital type, is adversely connected with the conduct of HR practices (Arasli et al., 2006). In North Cyprus, for instance, evidence suggests that nepotism has a significant negative impact on the conduct of HRM practices (Arasli & Tumer, 2008). This adverse relationship results from the corrupt effect of nepotism on the conduct of HRM and HRD practices such as employment, training, advancement, selection, evaluation, and disciplinary procedures (Arasli & Tumer, 2008). Consequently, when HRM and HRD practices are not viable and efficient, employees lack commitment, trust, and dependability, which causes demoralising employees in an organisation (Arasli & Tumer, 2008; Astrachan et al., 2002; Keles et al., 2011).

The last 10 years have witnessed a developing examination of how wasta, another form of social capital in the Middle East, can affect HRM/HRD practices (Ali, 2016; Al-Husan & James, 2009; Budhwar & Mellahi, 2016). In Jordan, wasta can be utilised to concede ‘unfit’ individuals in organisations that are past their capacities, abilities, experiences, and information (Ali, 2016). Wasta can also furnish supervisors’ family members and companions with favourable circumstances in training and advancement programmes, for instance, in the Jordanian banking sector (Altarawneh, 2009). In Bahrain, wasta is fundamental to getting employed (Karolak, 2016).

In the UAE, wasta is essentially identified with human capital factors, particularly professional advancement (Al-Ali, 2006; Qambar, 2015). In Saudi Arabia, employment and professional advancement are generally initiated on wasta rather than merits (Alreshoodi et al., 2016). Saudis go after wasta rather than a position to guarantee employment (Tlaiss & Elamin, 2016). Saudi employees might also misuse their connections to ensure managers know about their connections to give them preferential treatment, particularly in high-performance assessments and career development (Harbi et al., 2017; Tlaiss & Elamin, 2016). In Lebanese universities, wasta adversely influences employees, relationships, organisational culture, and the conduct of HRM practices such as recruitment, and the conduct of HRD practices such as career advancement and training (Kassab, 2016). These studies illustrate the connection between certain types of social capital, HRM and HRD.

Consequently, when it comes to recruitment decisions, the role played by wasta often results in a selection of ineligible staff who do not fulfil the required qualifications or skills. This often means that accessible resources, benefits, training and development are made available for wasta employees at the expense of others (Megheirkouni, 2014; Ta’Amnha & Sayce, 2016). In such context, employment choices are therefore affected by relational connections that wasta influences the conduct of HRM practices such as recruitment, promotion, and HRD opportunities (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a, 2006b; Tlaiss & Kauser, 2011). Selectees who lack wasta do not get certain business-related advantages, for instance, training opportunities, as such preferences are given to people with personal connections and family networks (Megheirkouni, 2014; Metcalfe 2006).

The significant undesirable influence of wasta on the ‘fair’ conduct of HRM practices gradually influences HRD, and it slowly erodes employee enthusiasm for partaking in work exercises (Sadegi & Naharuddin, 2013). Managers then live with the outcome of wasta that ‘lack of competence in employees, unprofessional behavior, perceptions of ill-justice, resentment and risk of retaliation, destruction of equality and fairness at the workplace, results in unfair practices, and impacts careers’ (Budhwar et al., 2019, p. 922). Working in a biased environment, therefore, makes employees and managers confused and discouraged.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research design

An exploratory design is essential due to (i) unavailable measures or instruments, (ii) unknown variables, (iii) lack of a framework or theory guideline, or (iv) limited resources (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Clark 2011). Kuwait is an apt case for this research, as it faces day-by-day difficulties in business due to longstanding traditions concerning the practice of wasta and the development of close interpersonal networks of individuals over many years due to shared geography, ethnicities, and Islamic heritage (Al-Sabah, 2001). Kuwait was therefore selected as highly suited to the study of wasta in Middle Eastern organisations, drawing on social exchange theory and exploring the influence of this practice on HRM and HRD.

3.2. Sample and data collection

We used an interpretive phenomenological approach to access the perspectives, sentiments, and experiences of employees and managers (Burrell & Morgan 2017). This approach explores abstract understandings and concentrates on an individual’s assessment of an inquiry, rather than on making an objective statement about the inquiry itself (Smith & Shinebourne, 2012). That is, the approach provides data on how a chosen individual, in a specific setting, clarifies a given phenomenon under study (Merriam, 2009). To achieve this, snowball sampling was utilised for data collection in this study. This approach involves selecting participants purposefully based on the research question and relies on referrals to identify suitable candidates (Palinkas et al., 2015; Teddlie & Yu, 2007). It is particularly valuable for reaching hidden populations, which may be challenging to identify through traditional means (Dragan & Isaic-Maniu, 2013). Given the sensitive nature of the research topic, accessing participants willing to discuss wasta openly can be difficult due to fear of social marginalisation (Babbie, 2020). Therefore, leveraging personal connections becomes essential for participant recruitment.

Prior to contacting the participants, thorough planning was conducted for the semi-structured interviews. All 24 semi-structured interviews had the same 10 questions. Our interview questions drew inspiration from previous studies conducted by Arasli et al. (2006), Hutchings and Weir (2006a), Morgan and Hunt (1994), and Padgett and Morris (2019). All interviews relied on both notetaking and voice recording, contingent upon participant written consent. Interviewing continued until the ‘saturation’ point, when further information did not alter results already attained and the names of additional stakeholders suggested by interviewees were repeated (Saunders & Townsend, 2016). The semi-structured interviews used both focused and structural strategies, permitting the researcher to explore further beyond the initial answers (Alreck & Settle, 1995).

3.3. Participants and demographic information

Evidential quotes from 24 semi-structured interviews of Kuwaitis across the private and public sectors were employed to answer the research question. Rather than requiring empirical answers in response to questions on qualitative experiences, the choice of approach focused on individual opinions (Smith & Osborn, 2007). It is, in other words, a question of how humans can understand and explain the phenomenon. Table 1 shows that Kuwaiti participants had comparable backgrounds in terms of work sector, experience, age, and their encounters with wasta (Table 1).

Table 1. Participant profile.

Interviewee Code	Gender	Age	Sector	Work Experience	Encounter with Wasta practice
A1	Female	32	Public	9 years	Yes
A2	Female	27	Private	5 years	No but have seen it happen to other
A3	Female	33	Public	11 years	No
A4	Male	32	Private	8 years	Yes
A5	Male	30	Private	7 years	Yes
A6	Male	32	Public	8 years	Yes
A7	Female	30	Public	8 years	Some what a victim and witness others
A8	Female	32	Public	11 years	Yes
A9	Female	33	Public	11 years	Yes
A10	Female	31	Private	7 years	No but have seen it happen to other
A11	Male	33	Public	11 years	Yes
A12	Male	56	Public	9 years	No but have seen it happen to other
A13	Male	35	Public	13 years	No but have seen it happen to other
A14	Male	33	Private	8 years	Yes
A14	Male	33	Private	8 years	Yes
A15	Male	28	Public	6 years	Yes
A16	Male	57	Public	18 years	Yes
A17	Male	38	Public	12 years	Yes
A18	Male	28	Private	8 years	Yes
A19	Female	30	Private	9 years	No but have seen it happen to other
A20	Female	42	Public	18 years	Yes
A21	Female	28	Private	7 years	Yes
A22	Male	31	Public	10 years	No
A23	Male	33	Public	11 years	Yes
A24	Male	32	Private	11 years	Yes

3.4. Data analysis

The interviews were transcribed, and the transcripts were analysed through thematic coding analysis using NVivo 11 (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Translation was necessary because of the interviews that took place in intermingled Arabic and English. During translation, a data cleaning process was executed to ensure that the translation is precise by amending any transcription fallacy. Interviews were transcribed using online software, known as GoTranscript, to ensure precision. Each interview was transcribed and stored individually to be analysed. Once translated, four members of this research team, whose first language is Arabic, and second language is English, accurately reviewed the transcripts to verify the correctness of the transcribed content. Additionally, a thorough check was conducted by back-translating the transcripts to ensure that the original meaning and context were accurately captured. We acknowledge that relying solely on online software for transcription may not be sufficient, and thus, the careful review process was crucial in maintaining the integrity of the data.

Once the transcriptions were complete, all data were imported into NVivo enabling thematic analysis to be used as a basis for assigning topics, sub-themes and codes according to their similarity (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2007). Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) method, the researchers thoroughly read through the transcripts, taking notes for potential coding while searching for meanings, patterns, and ideas. Data were then organised under potential headings (tree nodes) that were created through peer debriefing and discussion with all authors of this paper. The development of initial codes from the data followed, focusing on what was interesting about them. Coding involves merging data into sections, exploring similarities and differences, and grouping similar data in relevant nodes (Tuckett, 2005). The coding approach used in this research was latent rather than semantic, meaning themes were identified beyond the explicit meaning of the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The process was data-driven, where themes depended upon the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). After coding all data, similar codes were grouped together. The next step involved searching for themes by exploring the data thoroughly for repeated patterns. This was achieved by re-reading the coded sections, comparing, combining, and correlating similar codes into themes and sub-themes based on their relationships. Once themes were identified, they were named concisely to provide clarity. A thematic map was then generated, and themes were checked against the entire dataset to ensure coherence and relevance. Finally, a written report based on the findings was produced. Three main themes were identified regarding HRM practices: recruitment, job promotions, and evaluations and one main theme was identified regarding HRD practices: career development. An overview of the thematic analysis findings is presented in the Finding section below.

3.5. Establishing trustworthiness

Credibility in qualitative research involves ensuring consistency, honesty, and instrumental effectiveness to establish data collection and analysis trustworthiness. Lincoln and Guba (1985) emphasised the importance of criteria such as credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability, and authenticity (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) to affirm that a dataset accurately represents reality (Merriam, 2009). This includes confirming results based on objective data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2014). Researchers in this study verified the consistency and data-driven nature of the results (Patton, 2002), which is crucial when analysing subtleties and sometimes controversial aspects of human attitudes, values, and behaviours (Ahmed, 2024).

The trustworthiness of our data analysis derives from a compilation of actions, beginning with careful review of the interview transcripts by each research team member. We took notes during and after each interview, in addition to audio recordings, to capture participants’ emotions, reactions, and reflections. Initial coding of both transcripts and notes was done by the first and second authors, followed by review and confirmation of codes by other members of the authorship team (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). All researchers verified the findings as consistent with the data collected (Barhate et al., 2021). The sharing of the interview transcripts and the joint participation in the verification of first and second order codes, followed by the joint identification of aggregate themes, helped to ensure the reliability and validity of the overall thematic analysis (Abdallah et al., 2019). Lastly, given that the interviews were conducted in both Arabic and English, it was crucial to preserve the participants’ intended meanings during translation. To address this, we engaged in member checking by sharing the interview transcripts and the overall thematic analysis with five participants interested in participating in this process. Member checking is a critical step in verifying the accuracy of the transcripts and the researchers’ interpretation of the participants’ experiences (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

3.6. Researchers positionality

This research team has four Kuwaiti-born and raised members. They witnessed wasta’s widespread use in Kuwaiti society as children. Everyone has encountered wasta through family, friends, or personal networks at least once in their career. The fifth member, an American, has lived in Kuwait for over 10 years and witnessed wasta’s widespread influence on Kuwaiti culture. We were familiar with wasta from personal experiences or stories from family and friends, so all five researchers carefully examined the data and presumptions to avoid bias. Personal encounter prejudices were identified and resolved using this method. We distinguished participants’ experiences from our preconceptions by considering their positionality. As the main data collectors and analysts, we used bracketing to reduce research bias. Bracketing involves consciously ignoring preconceived notions, biases, and beliefs to avoid influencing participant experiences (Parahoo, 1997). We encouraged open and honest conversation during interviews (Legard et al., 2003). We restricted mobile phone use, limited speaker time, and encouraged respectful communication to ensure interview success.

4. Findings

The research findings revealed that interviewees contended wasta’s significant impact on both Human Resource Management (HRM) and Human Resource Development (HRD) practices, notably in recruitment and the presence of biased promotions and evaluations. According to the study, recruitment emerges as the primary HRM practice susceptible to wasta’s influence. This connection arises from wasta often being associated with individuals in positions of authority or those capable of exerting influence on recruitment decisions within organisations.

4.1. Recruitment and selection

Wasta influences recruitment and selection in private and public organisations in Kuwait. The interviewees recognised that wasta could get you a job in positions for which a wasta-based recruit might lack the experience and qualifications. However, the wasta services, along with the employment policy imposed by the Kuwaiti government on private sectors to hire 50% Kuwaiti nationals or face fines, led to the creation of ‘phantom employees’. This is where Kuwaitis are employed and paid salaries to stay home, ensuring organisations meet quotas and avoid fines (Salih, 2010).

[…] Some people get their degree from unaccredited universities and are placed in leadership and sensitive positions because of wasta. (Interviewee A6)

[…] they [phantom employees] are recruited in organisations by the MPs to profit from the labour support granted by the government without [phantom employees] going to work. (Interviewee A24)

Interestingly, managers might not only work with conundrums in performing recruitment and selection in this context but also approve of working under the leadership of a wasta-based recruit because, simply put, these individuals have the ‘right’ wasta to speak for their qualification, education, and experience:

Those who are not qualified enough are getting jobs, while others who have a degree, who studied 5, 6 and 7 years of their lives are still sitting at home. (Interviewee A3)

Therefore, a sort of fundamental assumption, underlying the emerging tensions between wasta and performing HR practices and conditions for handling them, is that individuals have the ‘right’ wasta. A few employees, presumably those inside a wasta circle, consequently, committed to their organisation knowing that they have wasta influencers caring for them. In comparison, individuals who lack wasta might be committed because of the absence of an alternative and, as a result, they attend work in their organisation. Subsequently, working in such a context puts pressure on managers to perform HR practices in a manner that is perceived as ‘fair’. They might find themselves in a situation where wasta is portrayed as a social reality; a duty to be fulfilled as accepted social tenets of the community.

Furthermore, commenting on their personal experience of wasta, several interviewees reported that wasta-based recruits can even get away with lack of attendance – not coming to work – and still receive preferential treatment due to their connections:

[…] he is given things to do, and he is not doing them because of his wasta, knowing that he got hired by wasta, and wasta got his back; so, he does not care about anything. (Interviewee A5)

[…] my sister used to work for [name of company] that is known. She was always late and did not work properly, and her manager was fine with it because he was related to us. He also chose her to travel out of the country to attend a conference that represented the organization. Even though she was qualified, it was unfair to her hard-working colleagues who deserved that opportunity. (Interviewee A2)

One might also argue that wasta enables managers to get away with indirectly promoting gender preferences in Kuwaiti organisations. In this context, the preference is towards employing a female candidate in a male-dominated workplace. Several interviewees commented that managers overlook qualifications when it comes to female recruits with wasta:

Some girls were employed by managers, and they have less experience and education than we do. They have a Diploma, yet they got higher positions, and some became our supervisors. (Interviewee A8)

As wasta is more widespread in the public sector in the Middle East (Budhwar et al., 2019), the Kuwaiti public sector is generally reluctant to support employees with ‘fair’ conduct of HR practices, which could explain this insight. As the level of education increases, the higher the practice of high-performance HRM is less likely to change. This is because, the concept of ‘High-Performance HRM’ encompasses various factors such as personal commitment, fair recruitment practices, emphasis on training, performance improvement, encouragement of creativity, and fostering loyalty. As individuals progress in their education, from high school to postgraduate levels, they are more likely to exhibit behaviours aligned with these high-performance HRM indicators. For instance, individuals with higher education levels tend to prioritise personal investment in their organisations, prefer merit-based recruitment, value formal training opportunities, and are more inclined towards innovative thinking. Consequently, as educational attainment increases, there’s a greater tendency for individuals to demonstrate high HRM performance behaviours, reflecting a positive correlation between education level and HRM practices.

Considering the tensions that such practices could bring into the work of managers; the researcher asked the interviewees if they could comment on the motives behind accepting employees through wasta. Their responses are summarised hereunder:

To accelerate the recruitment and selection process. Managers accepting employees through wasta might find it easier and quicker to hire someone they know than to go through the organisational recruitment and selection process. The interviewees suggested that managers justify their actions by suggesting that the organisational recruitment and selection process is slow and time-consuming:

They [managers] prefer hiring people quickly to avoid wasting any time. When a manager needs, let us say an accountant, they will ask around, even though we have a website that has so many people applying for an accounting position. They do not want to wait for the interviews, assess candidates’ abilities, ask for recommendation letters, or ask their previous employer; they prefer someone they know or someone from their family member. (Interviewee A7)

It is easier for them [managers] to choose people they know over people they do not know. (Interviewee A15)

To fulfil one’s obligation in Kuwaiti society. Wasta is a societal norm, and managers are therefore expected to fulfil their obligations. Several interviewees viewed wasta as a social reality and suggested that managers, for instance, are told what to do regardless of how HR practices ought to be performed in a perceived ‘fair’ manner:

I believe it is because they got used to it [wasta]. It [wasta] became something normal to the extent that a person not having wasta is not a normal thing. It is not normal for an individual to give all to their job and work ethically, it is rare. (Interviewee A10)

It is because the bigger authority tells them [Managers] to do so, such as the CEO of the organization, ministries, MPs, etc. So, they are obligated to accept employees through wasta. (Interviewee A9)

To benefit from future reciprocal acts. Managers, who are accepting candidates through wasta, might view individuals with wasta as a support system and expect them to return the favour in reciprocal acts. The interviewees commented on how the expectation of returning the favour of wasta in reciprocal acts significantly dictates the outcome of wasta:

[…] because of common interest between the asker and provider of wasta; there must be a common interest. (Interviewee A9)

[…] it is a ‘give and take’ process when it comes to their benefits […] they would hire someone knowing while the person would fulfil a favor for them. That is why they hire people through wasta. (Interviewee A8)

Nevertheless, there are potential drawbacks and expenses associated with recruiting individuals through wasta. Managers must carefully consider their decisions before finalizing them. Appointing individuals to roles for which they lack relevant experience can prove to be a waste of both time and energy, not only for the recruiter but also for other employees who may bear the brunt of the consequences, such as increased workloads or unproductive periods.

[…] those hired through wasta often lack understanding of their role or the broader work context. Consequently, we find ourselves bearing the burden of their recruitment, as we end up not only fulfilling our own duties but also compensating for their lack of contribution. They often remain idle while we shoulder additional responsibilities, all the while enjoying benefits like bonuses, overtime incentives, and undeserved supervision payments”. (Interviewee A12)

4.2. Reward system: promotions and advancements

The intervention of wasta in job promotion practices benefits wasta beneficiaries and, possibly, managers who might seek future reciprocal acts. Using wasta speeds up the process of getting a promotion by at least a year:

When someone is hired through wasta, they get promoted sooner. Normally, a person gets promoted within 2–3 years; but with wasta, they get promoted within a year. Their salary increases sooner than my salary because I do not use or have wasta. (Interviewee A5)

Along these lines, several interviewees conceded that they were either given late promotions or poor evaluations due to lacking wasta:

I faced several issues regarding promotions and advancements because I did not have wasta in the bank. (Interviewee A18)

Having noted that, the interviewees unanimously agreed that those with access to wasta receive quicker promotions and better perks:

Some people are receiving advancements and promotions quicker than those who deserve them just because they are related to the manager or someone in power. (Interviewee A15)

People do not want to wait for what they deserve; they use wasta to accelerate the process for everything. (Interviewee A11)

Wasta beneficiaries and users, therefore, realise that, because of their connection, they consistently get some degree of special treatment, and accordingly they somewhat consistently get ahead of others. Clarifying such association further is difficult as it relies upon human observation since everybody perceives and experiences wasta differently.

Job promotion practices, among other goals, aim to provide incentives for initiatives, promote optimal use of skills and abilities, reduce dissatisfaction, attract suitable candidates, encourage training for advancement, and recognise achievements. In this context, rather than

encouraging employees to gradually exceed expectations through job promotion, wasta creates a culture where managers live with the conundrum of giving promotions to employees with wasta while superficially encouraging others with no wasta to exceed expectations for no or late promotions. According to some interviewees:

Promotions are based on connections. The only reason people are getting promoted in certain positions is due to wasta that the person is loyal to, instead of the country, which is destroying the country. (Interviewee A16)

Wasta is a way to get promotion opportunities without following instructions or the necessary standards. (Interviewee A20)

4.3. Performance appraisal and management

The weight of appraisal and performance management is in a rational assessment of the performance of everyone in an organisation based on pre-determined standards. However, what evaluation process is adopted by an organisation remains the indicating factor of whether performance appraisal and management motivate employees. This HR practice is supposed to improve HRD through performance and quality of work, ignite a feeling of competition among employees, identify strengths and weaknesses of individual employees, and enhance employee-employer mutual understanding.

While managers, in the context of Kuwait, generally strive for such outcomes from appraisal and performance management, evidential quotes suggest that they usually work with what they are told from a wasta circle.

[…] the bigger authority tells them [Managers] to do so, such as the CEO of the organisation, ministries, MPs, etc. (Interviewee A9)

By getting employed through wasta, they honestly do not understand anything related to their position or the entire work, for a matter of fact. (Interviewee A8)

Having noted that managers commonly consciously use appraisal and performance management to favourably assess the performance of candidates with wasta. Managers, on the other hand, due to a lack of empowerment and discretion choose to work with such organising conundrums:

The manager of the branch at that time wanted to promote his friends, so they unfairly evaluated me and gave his friends a better evaluation so that they could get promoted faster. (Interviewee A16)

That said, while managers seek reciprocal wasta favours by tailoring appraisal and performance management to positively promote the performance of individuals of their contacts at the expense of others, these managerial actions create resentments among employees with a lack of wasta:

In the end, we [employees who lack wasta] are the ones who are affected by such decisions because instead of doing our jobs alone, we are also doing theirs [employees with wasta] as well, and they are just sitting there doing nothing. (Interviewee A8)

Although employees, who lack wasta, endure the consequences of managerial actions, managers generally choose to prioritise their obligations to wasta:

We keep quiet and work twice as much while they just sit around, and get all the bonuses, and overtime incentives, and on top of that, they are taking supervision payments that they do not deserve. (Interviewee A8)

Employees (and/or candidates) who lack wasta appear to accept wasta and the cultural norms surrounding it as a social reality. On the other hand, managers ’ response strategy to emerging tensions also reflects a perception of wasta as a social reality:

People are expected to perform wasta favors due to their tribes, families, groups etc. They [tribes, families, groups etc.] are the ones who hire people in different sectors to remain in control. (Interviewee A6)

I was delayed 13 years for a promotion. (Interviewee A16)

These evidential quotes might also indicate that most of the participants of this study periodically utilised wasta, underwriting that they were to some degree part of a wasta circle. When wasta behaviour is widespread in an organisation, individuals who practice it usually get preferential treatment by manipulating HR practices, making high-performance HRM unfair to others. Perhaps, when worker ‘A’, for instance, is connected to the supervisor of a Kuwaiti organisation, ‘A’ could quit coming to work and still get higher assessment evaluations than B, who is consistently grinding away on schedule. In any case, B has no other

alternative than to keep working, as there may be the absence of or fewer occupation choices even when knowing they have a low chance at developing their career if they stay.

Having inferred that managers might be able to adopt alternative values that are linked to notions of organisational justice and individual equality in Kuwaiti organisations. Adopting such an approach to emerging tensions might challenge wasta as a social construction, but it also jeopardises one’s image in Kuwaiti society in fulfilling their obligations towards wasta.

4.4. Career development

Even by interfering with HRM practices, wasta does not have the power to force colleagues to share their expertise, mentor, coach or even force people to be involved in activities that improve one’s career development as well as any other HRD practices improve one’s career development. Many employees are reluctant to mentor or properly train recruits due to the fear of losing their competitive advantage since they know that wasta recruits have a better chance of career advancement.

What they will not benefit from is the expertise and knowledge of his/her colleagues who will be unwilling to share it with them because they know that they were recruited due to wasta and have a better chance of advancing. (Interviewee A23)

There are many employees, especially in my organization, who do not mentor or share their expertise with others because they are afraid that a person with connections can use it and advance before them since they consider knowledge as a competitive advantage. (Interviewee A24)

my organization tends to hire wasta-based employees. By doing so, current experienced employees do not fully mentor them or any recruits due to career advancement issues. (Interviewee A20)

Interviewees believed that due to wasta, their performance level dropped significantly. The consequences of using wasta even resulted in outcomes, such as low productivity and deprived employees of willingness to focus on developing their careers. That said, participants lost interest in performing well due to knowing that they would not get what they deserved.

It did affect my performance level because it is unjust to get the lowest evaluation grade just because I did not know anyone. (Interviewee A19)

When they started to abuse wasta and hire unqualified supervisors and team leaders, I had enough, I couldn’t take it anymore. I did not want to work, I wondered why I should work

for someone who does not value my work and present my work as if it was theirs the entire time when they are not working at all and provide favors for those whom they want or would benefit from. (Interviewee A4)

It made me upset. I honestly stopped going to work properly and my performance level dropped significantly. (Interviewee A1)

Yes, a lot! It affected my performance. I stopped going early to work. I was always late, I stopped shaving and caring about my looks… So, I stayed for another year before resigning when I saw there was no hope anymore and applied at another bank. (Interviewee A7)

5. Discussion and implications

This paper examines the influence of wasta on HRM and HRD practices in Kuwaiti organisations. The findings revealed that wasta plays an essential role in influencing recruitment decisions across both private and public sectors in Kuwait. Individuals wielding wasta connections often secure roles for which they may lack requisite qualifications or experience, leading to disparities and inefficiencies in the recruitment domain. The literature review highlights a substantial body of existing research on the influence of wasta on HRM practices, indicating that this finding is not novel. Scholars like Alreshoodi et al. (2016), Qambar (2015), and Tlaiss and Elamin (2016) have already established that wasta affects HRM practices in various Arab countries. This perspective is further supported by Al-Enzi (2017), Ali (2016), Al-thbah, (2021), Karolak (2016), Sfeir (2022) and Tlaiss and Kuaser (2011) who suggest that wasta plays a significant role in recruitment, potentially causing challenges for individuals seeking employment without it. This phenomenon not only undermines meritocratic recruitment principles but also deprives suitably qualified candidates of opportunities for career progression and professional growth.

Moreover, it has been noted that wasta expedites promotions and career advancements for beneficiaries, avoiding traditional HRM protocols like performance assessments and merit-based promotion frameworks. Consequently, a culture emerges wherein connected individuals receive preferential treatment, producing discontent among wasta-lacking employees who perceive promotional practices as inequitable, as affirmed by Al-Enzi (2017). Harbi et al. (2017), Khalfan (2024), Megheirkouni (2014) and Ta’Amnha and Sayce (2016). This dynamic further compounds challenges for non-affiliated employees seeking career advancement, intensifying workplace disparities.

The findings also exposed that wasta exerts a visible influence on performance appraisal processes, resulting in biased evaluations that favour connected individuals. These outcomes are also aligned with those of Megheirkouni (2014) and Metcalfe (2006) by asserting that individuals with wasta gain distinct business-related benefits. Managers may prioritise the interests of wasta beneficiaries over objective performance benchmarks, culminating in demotivation and diminished productivity among other staff members. This undue interference with HRM processes undermines the efficacy of performance management in nurturing employee development, HRD and organisational progress. It is also revealed that wasta impedes career development by erecting barriers for non-connected employees to access mentoring, knowledge exchange, and advancement prospects, which is also supported by Al-Enzi (2017), Alsarhan et al. (2021), Al-thbah (2021) and Baranik et al. (2023). The resultant discouragement and disengagement among employees contribute to decreased performance output and productivity levels.

Additionally, the analyses also uncovered three other consequences of utilising wasta. Firstly, once individuals become involved in the ‘vicious cycle’ or obligations of wasta, it can be difficult to escape the cycle, making the situation even more challenging. The term ‘vicious cycle’ refers to a situation where negative circumstances or consequences perpetuate themselves, creating a self-reinforcing loop that is difficult to break out of (Whitaker, 2009). In the case of wasta, it suggests that once individuals become involved in a certain wasta situation, act, or obligation, it becomes challenging for them to extricate themselves from it. This can lead to feeling trapped or stuck in a cycle where they feel compelled to continue despite their desire to escape. This creates uncertainty for HR functions. However, by reframing these practices as socially constructed, managers can better address wasta-related challenges. Secondly, there’s a rise in phantom employees, where organisations hire Kuwaiti employees for government contracts without requiring them to physically attend work, as confirmed by interview respondents. This finding aligns with Salih’s (2010) assertion that the government and MPs contribute to this phenomenon by placing friends and relatives in positions solely for financial gain. Lastly, unfair recruitment leads to either work overload or no work at all, supported by Al-Enzi (2017), and Ta’Amnha and Sayce (2016). When undeserving individuals are placed in managerial roles, their teams often bear the brunt of having to pick up the slack, as revealed by interviews.

The study’s findings revealed that there is a strong connection between wasta and HRM and HRD practices. This relationship is an ongoing challenge in Kuwait due to the deeply ingrained status of wasta in Kuwaiti society. In situations where wasta is prevalent, managers must not strictly adhere to either fairness or unfairness in HR practices. Instead, they should aim for a balance (see Table 2).

Table 2. HRM/HRD vs wasta practices.

HRM/HRD practices	Wasta Practices
Recruitment and selection Qualified individuals are selected from among a pool of applicants for an announced vacancy.	Individuals with wasta are offered jobs regardless of qualifications or matching job requirements.
Job promotion Advancement in the form of rewards, higher pay, and better positions occurs for employees based on good performance.	Individuals with wasta receive better perks and faster promotions, regardless of performance.
Appraisal and performance Management Assessment occurs based on pre-determined standards applicable to the criteria of the position and the match with organisational needs.	Individuals with wasta are consciously assessed more favourably using the existing system of appraisal and performance management.
Career development Fair training and advancement for all employees become available based on employees’ proficiencies, skills, and knowledge.	Individuals with wasta receive better training and advancement opportunities.

5.1. Implications for HRD theory

Conceptually we explain the effect of wasta on the constructs of HRM, HRD, and organisational performance. We further address the consequences of wasta for career development, employee performance, and staff retention. Specifically, we link social exchange and social capital theories to wasta, as wasta can be classified as a type of social capital.

As a result, this study highlights the importance of HRD collaborating with other functions like HRM to enhance employee and organisational performance. Prior research indicates that positive employee perceptions of HR practices and management’s genuine concern for employee development are key factors in shaping favourable attitudes and behaviour (Hutchings et al., 2009; Masterson & Stamper, 2003; Nishii et al., 2008; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Thus, the paper fills a gap in the literature by providing empirical evidence on the role of key agents in an organisational setting for employee career development and organisational performance. The study also sheds light on the impact of wasta on HRM and HRD, providing knowledge that can help local and international entrepreneurs who wish to open a business in Kuwait understand how wasta might affect their operations.

5.2. Implications for HRD practice

As wasta is mainly detrimental to fair HRM and HRD practice, career development, and workplace attitudes and behaviour, managers and governments can work to enhance or eliminate identified helpful or deleterious strategies. The study highlights the importance of recruiting employees based on qualifications rather than wasta and shows that wasta can lead to negative employee attitudes, and reduced engagement, commitment, and productivity. The study also explored the necessity of recruiting candidates with a particular type of characteristics, which are an asset for organisations. To achieve high organisational performance, this research will help organisations concentrate on employees’ skills and knowledge.

To address performance management and job restructuring (Mishra & McDonald, 2017), HRD professionals may work with HRM managers in reconfiguring jobs to promote autonomy and increase a variety of employee skills (DuPlessis et al., 2021; Grocutt et al., 2022). They may also help employees gain a better understanding of possible obstacles they may face in their careers, as well as provide strategies for dealing with them. HRD professionals can also demonstrate setting up support networks (Mishra & McDonald, 2017). In case of need, HRD may assist employees in the preparation of plans for further skill development and help with developing an alternate career plan. They can teach them to believe that they are capable of dealing with disruptions and changes that might have an impact on their careers (Lent, 2013).

Thus, this paper can be used by governments and organisations as a strategic support to raise awareness among people in power of key elements that empower or obstruct organisational performance. The findings will help managers and researchers understand, accept, and address challenges and tensions facing managers and their organisations in the Middle East, as not all tensions can be settled. Understanding this phenomenon not only provides practical guidance to managers on how to carefully choose their response to tensions resulting from wasta but also extends the theoretical understanding of the cognitive, emotional and behavioural consequences of perceiving and responding to tensions in particular ways. In addition, this paper could also help with global business relations about business transactions and exchanges, as it increases awareness and acknowledgement in terms of behavioural differences and similarities between countries. The findings therefore further extend wasta to the SHRM and SHRD literature, particularly in the form that HR stakeholders would be better served by advice and research that helps them to appreciate and navigate, rather than suppress and deny, the plurality of interests that shape the employment relationship (Cushen & Harney, 2014).

5.3. Limitations and future research directions

A key limitation of this study was the method of collecting data, which was done through snowball sampling. In a country such as Kuwait, wasta is a delicate topic of high importance, greatly complicating the collection of qualitative data by random sampling. We used snowball sampling because Kuwaitis were more comfortable talking to those they trusted. However, concerns arose that responses might be influenced by any insider bias of the researchers. It was essential to listen carefully, clarify whenever necessary, and be conscious of beliefs that could interfere with or influence answers.

While the study is based in Kuwait, research in other Arab countries, in small-and medium- sized organisations, public and/or private, can further nuance understanding of the tensions between wasta and HRM for managers. Future research needs to explore what those ‘special’ skills are. While there has been an increasing interest in the literature to understand the concept of wasta, further research is needed to understand the implications of wasta on the work of managers in Arab countries. Thus, a comparison study of wasta in Arab countries could shed further light on the subtle difference of how wasta may manifest and influence HRM practices in different Arab countries, as well as how wasta is managed in other Arab countries to minimise its influence on HRM practices.

6. Conclusion

When relationships among wasta, HRM, and HRD are left unmanaged, managers encounter issues such as phantom employees, meaning employees with high absenteeism and turnover, who have never been truly present in the organisation. The government has been criticised in circumstances of these phantom employees, where managers have been encouraged or allowed to employ their relatives and friends or to have them benefit from governmental contracts (e.g. Salih, 2010). Such employees lack commitment and will potentially either quit or lose interest in participating in any organisational activities. Managers must therefore find ways to successfully address wasta within organisations to increase employee commitment, decrease turnover, reduce the phenomenon of phantom employees, increase productivity, and increase employee and organisational performance.

To effectively tackle the problem of wasta, our study proposes that the implementation of a fair recruitment system and employment policies may significantly contribute to improving organisational performance. Organizations should implement a fair recruitment system by introducing an anonymous electronic method that evaluates candidates exclusively based on their merit. This approach would enable the assessment of candidates based exclusively on their abilities, experience, and qualifications, hence reducing the impact of wasta in the recruitment process. Additionally, policy may be implemented to enforce significant fines on firms convicted of engaging in fraudulent recruitment behaviour.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Gulf University for Science and Technology (GUST).