Censored: Examining the Standards, Personnel, and Censorship Technology in the Soviet Military Press, 1944–1945

Abstract

This article examines one of the areas of activity for restriction of information – the system of military censorship in the Soviet military press: what remained unchanged and what was transformed in its work on protecting information, which was a military secret between 1944 and 1945. The study focuses on the regulatory framework of military censorship, the objects of the ban, the censor's personnel, technology of censorship control. Until December 1943 in the Red Army, there was a ‘Regulation on the organization of military censorship’ of 1935, which did not meet wartime requirements. The new ‘Regulation’ corrected the situation. The change and addition of the composition of the information constituting military secrets were directly affected by the course of combat operations during the Red Army’s campaign in Europe. The subject of censorship prevented the disclosure of military secrets, political errors, and information undesirable to publish in the military press.

KEYWORDS:

• Censorship
• military censorship
• military press
• Red Army’s campaign in Europe
• 1944–1945
• disclosures

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Lenoe, Closer to the Masses, 246.

2 Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State, 253.

3 Plamper, “Abolishing Ambiguity,” 543.

4 Kassof, “Glavlit, Ideological Censorship, and Russian-Language Book Publishing,” 95.

5 See Blium, Sovetskaia tsenzura v ėpokhu total'nogo terrora; Plamper, “Abolishing Ambiguity”; Goriaeva, Politicheskaia tsenzura v SSSR. 1917–1991 gg; Zelёnov, “Voennaia i gosudarstvennaia taĭna v RSFSR i SSSR i ikh pravovoe obespechenie (1917–1991 gg.)”; Spencer, Stalinism and the Soviet-Finnish War, 1939–40; Streikus, “Political Censorship in the Soviet West”.

6 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534.

7 Cambridge Dictionary. ‘Censorship.’ Cambridge Dictionary. Accessed October 23, 2023. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/censorship

8 Definitions. ‘Definitions for military censorship.’ Definitions. Accessed October 23, 2023. https://www.definitions.net/definition/military%20censorship; Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential. ‘Military censorship.’ Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential. Accessed October 23, 2023. http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/problem/military-censorship

9 Berkhoff, Motherland in Danger, 30.

10 Green and Karolides, Encyclopedia of censorship, 587.

11 Blavatnik Archive. ‘Irina Botnar.’ Blavatnik Archive. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://www.blavatnikarchive.org/veteran/6704?bti=23418&rts=false

12 Blavatnik Archive. ‘Anna Gavare.’ Blavatnik Archive. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://www.blavatnikarchive.org/veteran/3420?bti=5900&rts=false

13 RGVA, f. 4, o. 3, d. 3300, l. 19–19ob.

14 Ibid, l. 19ob.

15 Zelёnov, “Voennaia i gosudarstvennaia taĭna v RSFSR i SSSR i ikh pravovoe obespechenie (1917–1991 gg.),” 151.

16 Ibid.: 152.

17 Shirokorad, Tsentral′naia periodicheskaia pechat′ v gody Velikoĭ Otechestvennoĭ voĭny (1941–1945).

18 Russkiĭ arkhiv: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. T. 13 (2–3). Prikazy narodnogo komissara oborony SSSR, 1943–1945 gg.

19 Ibid.: 249–59.

20 In total, during 1944–1945, six consolidated guidelines were prepared: No. 1 of July 7, 1944; No. 2 of August 14, 1944; No. 3 of September 6, 1944; No. 4 of October 8, 1944; No. 5 of March 3, 1945; No. 6 of March 12, 1945. (TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 181, l. 1–67; Ibid, d. 288, l. 1–10.)

21 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 288, l. 1.

22 Dembitskiĭ, Plen – tragediia millionov sovetskikh boĭtsov i komandirov, 1941–1945; Polian, Zhertvy dvukh diktatur: Zhizn′, trud, unizheniia i smert′ sovetskikh voennoplennykh i ostarbaĭterov na chuzhbine i na rodine.

23 Berkhoff, Motherland in Danger.

24 On the comparison of GULAG and Nazi camps, see Toker, Gulag Literature and the Literature of Nazi Camps.

25 Piehler and Grant, The Oxford Handbook of World War II.

26 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 288, l. 1.

27 Na shturm, March 3, 1945.

28 Ibid, March 20, 1945.

29 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 288, l. 2.

30 Ibid, d. 181, l. 24.

31 Russkiĭ arkhiv: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. T. 13 (2–3). Prikazy narodnogo komissara oborony SSSR, 1943–1945 gg.

32 Stalinskiĭ udar. April 9, 1945.

33 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 204, l. 206.

34 Ibid, d. 251, l. 33.

35 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 159, l. 57–58.

36 On state propaganda, see Kenez, The Birth of Propaganda State; Brandenberger, Propaganda State in Crisis: Soviet Ideology, Indoctrination, and Terror under Stalin.

37 Berkhoff, Motherland in Danger.

38 Lysakova, “Vozdeĭstvie russkogo gazetnogo teksta na mentalitet lichnosti”.

39 Popov and Gorokhov, Sovetskaia voennaia pechat′ v gody Velikoĭ Otechestvennoĭ voĭny.

40 TsAMO RF, f. 32, o. 920265, d. 1, l. 8.

41 Popov, Gorokhov, Sovetskaia voennaia pechat′ v gody Velikoĭ Otechestvennoĭ voĭny.

42 Russkiĭ arkhiv: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. T. 13 (2–3). Prikazy narodnogo komissara oborony SSSR, 1943–1945 gg.

43 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 179, l. 6–7.

44 By ‘unit’ is meant – brigade, division, corps.

45 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 179, l. 7; Ibid., d. 206, l. 20.

46 Ibid, d. 266, l. 51.

47 Ibid, d. 198, l. 62.

48 Ibid, d. 286, l. 24.

49 Russkiĭ arkhiv: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. T. 13 (2–3). Prikazy narodnogo komissara oborony SSSR, 1943–1945 gg.

50 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 286, l. 11.

51 Ibid, d. 267, l. 2ob.

52 My Learning. ‘Censorship.’ My Learning. Accessed October 23, 2023. https://www.mylearning.org/stories/censorship-and-propaganda-in-ww2/483?

53 British Online Archives. ‘A Guide to British Government Information and Propaganda, 1939-2009.’ British Online Archives. Accessed October 23, 2023. https://microform.digital/boa/posts/category/contextual-essays/421/a-guide-to-british-government-information-and-propaganda-1939-2009

54 MacKenzie, Simon, “Vox Populi”.

55 Smyth, “Avoiding Bloodshed?”

56 Elmore, “Stars and Stripes”

57 Kostyrchenko, “Sovetskaia tsenzura v 1941–1952 godakh”.

58 Ibid.

59 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 179, l. 70–71.

60 Ibid, d. 181, l. 11.

61 Russkiĭ arkhiv: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. T. 13 (2–3). Prikazy narodnogo komissara oborony SSSR, 1943–1945 gg.

62 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 272, l. 35.

63 Ibid, l. 60.

64 Blavatnik Archive. ‘Arkadiy Fridner. Full, unedited interview, 2008.’ Blavatnik Archive. Accessed November 4, 2023. https://www.blavatnikarchive.org/item/6142?relevant=11

65 TsAMO RF, f. 32, o. 795436, d. 7, l. 12.

66 Dolmatovskiĭ, Ochevidets.

67 Tvardovskiĭ, Voennye gody. Part 1. Dnevniki 1941–1945.

68 Ibid.: 89.

69 Ibid.: 77.

70 Tvardovskiĭ, Voennye gody. Part 1. Dnevniki 1941–1945.

71 ‘My predchuvstvovali polykhan′e … ’ Soiuz sovetskikh pisateleĭ SSSR v gody Velikoĭ Otechestvennoĭ voĭny. Iiun′ 1941 – sentiabr′ 1945 g. Dokumenty i kommentarii. Part 2.

72 Plamper, “Abolishing Ambiguity”.

73 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 278, l. 44.

74 Ibid, l. 45.

75 Ibid, d. 159, l. 100; Ibid., d. 204, l. 148; Ibid., d. 272, l. 61; Ibid., d. 255, l. 64.

76 Ibid, d. 181, l. 14; Ibid., d. 255, l. 46.

77 Ibid, d. 181, l. 7, 14.

78 Ibid, l. 7.

79 Ibid, d. 204. l. 148; Ibid., d. 181, l. 14; Ibid., d. 255, l. 64; Ibid., d. 272, l. 61; Ibid., d. 267, l. 37; Ibid., d. 278, l. 45.

80 Ibid, d. 181, l. 7.

81 Ibid, d. 255, l. 46, 64; Ibid., d. 267, l. 37; Ibid., d. 278, l. 45.

82 Resolution of the GKO of the USSR No. 1488ss ‘On the Mobilization of Komsomol Girls in the Air Defense’, March 25, 1942. RGASPI, f. 644. O. 2, d. 43, l. 157; Resolution of the GKO of the USSR No. 1595ss ‘On the Replacement of Red Army Men in Frontline, Army and Communication Spare Parts and Rear Communication Centers by Women’, April 13, 1942. RGASPI, f. 644, o. 2, d. 51, l. 105; Order of the GKO of the USSR No. 4239ss ‘On the Mobilization of Women and Conscripts Not Fit for Service in the Red Army to Work at Central Artillery Bases and Warehouses’, October 5, 1943. RGASPI, f. 644, o. 2, d. 219, l. 122; Resolution of the GKO of the USSR No. 5907s ‘On conscription of 25,000 Women Volunteers into the Army’, May 16, 1944. RGASPI, f. 644, o. 2, d. 335, l. 11.

83 Zhenevskaia konventsiia ob uluchshenii uchasti ranenykh i bol′nykh v deĭstvuiushchikh armiiakh.

84 Ibid.

85 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 276, l. 76.

86 Ibid.

87 Ibid., l. 21.

88 Ibid, d. 267, l. 87.

89 Kostyrchenko, “Sovetskaia tsenzura v 1941–1952 godakh”.

90 Ibid.

91 Peto, “Silencing and Unsilencing Sexual Violence in Hungary”.

92 Shneer, Through Soviet Jewish Eyes.

93 Ibid.

94 TsAMO RF, f. 18, o. 11534, d. 269, l. 46.

95 Ibid, d. 267, l. 49.

96 Istoriia Rossii v Fotografiiakh. ‘Poet Evgeniĭ Dolmatovskiĭ.’ Istoriia Rossii v Fotografiiakh. Accessed October 20, 2023. https://russiainphoto.ru/search/photo/years-1840-1999/?index = 2&page = 1&paginate_page = 1&query = евгений±долматовский

97 Istoriia Rossii v Fotografiiakh. ‘Aleksandr Tvardovskiĭ.’ Istoriia Rossii v Fotografiiakh. Accessed October 22, 2023. https://russiainphoto.ru/photos/219369/

98 Rare Historical Photos. ‘The Soviet flag over the Reichstag, 1945.’ Rare Historical Photos. Accessed October 21, 2023. https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/soviet-flag-reichstag-berlin-1945/

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Alemzhan Arinov

Alemzhan Arinov Department of History of Kazakhstan, Faculty of History, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan.

Bereket Karibaev

Bereket Karibaev, Department of History of Kazakhstan, Faculty of History, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan. E-mail [email protected]