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ABSTRACT
This article examines the emergence of Israel's return migration industry (RMI). It argues that alongside the state, repatriation projects of (mostly skilled) migrants are increasingly (co)-produced and carried out by a widening range of non-state actors (NSAs). Informed by a networked governance approach, which dictates greater collaborations between a loosely connected set of actors in both Israel and overseas, the new structure allows the state to delegate responsibility for selected functions to civic and private organisations and still govern repatriation efforts effectively. By highlighting the industry’s involvement in two distinct, yet interrelated, phases of the migration process, namely recruitment and (re)integration, the article attends to the range of actors engaged in repatriation initiatives, analyses their roles and explores the geographical scales at which they operate. In so doing, it offers a more nuanced understanding of the industry in return, a traditionally less explored phase in the migratory process.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Roughly 10,000 annual returnees have been recorded in the last decade. Between 2010 and 2014, an estimated total of 46,000 citizens returned to Israel. In the previous five years, the number stood at 51,000.
2 This is not to deny that other NSAs exist that partake in low-skilled migration to Israel.
3 Governing, for Foucault (Citation1991, 136), is an art or a game, by which the conduct of others is (self-) regulated.
4 This is especially the case for international migrants who are intra-corporate transfers.
5 The portfolio was a governmental response to unprecedentedly high emigration rates after the 1973 War (Lustick Citation2004).
6 Israel’s (Jewish) immigration (Aliya) and integration policies had undergone similar processes at that time. Non-state organizations like Nefesh B’Nefesh (Hebrew ‘soul to soul’) and AMI (My People) have assumed exclusive responsibility over the recruitment and integration of Jewish migrants from North America and France, respectively. For an excellent discussion of these processes, which are beyond the scope of this article, see Shpaizman (Citation2013).
7 Voluntary return is open to all migrants, yet the article deals primarily with NSA that help recruit and (re)integrate skilled migrants, namely ‘people who have a tertiary educational qualification or its equivalent’ (Koser and Salt Citation1997, 287).
8 The contested reform, known as ‘Milchan Law’, after the Billionaire Israeli-American film producer whose lawyers reportedly lobbied for it (Sade and Amit Citation2017), failed completely. Although it managed to attract some high-profile Israeli migrants, including business-owners in media and telecommunication, most re-migrated shortly before exemptions expired (Neuman Citation2019).
9 CEO of El-Op said that his firm was interested in ‘repatriating Israelis who hold senior positions abroad’ (Neev Citation2009).
10 Edelson is a staunch supporter of Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu and one of the largest donors to the Republican Party in the US. Saban is an acquaintance to leaders of the Democratic Party and maintains strong connections with leading figures in Israel’s political and business community.
11 In its 2018 conference, some delegates underscored the need to expand its reach and forge ties with Israeli communities globally.
12 It is estimated that less than a quarter of repatriates have been traditionally relying on formal assistance provided by the Israeli state, with slightly higher figures during designated return programs (Interview, 2016).
13 The procedure is different for corporate returnees as they are typically offered jobs well in advance of their actual return.
14 Former head of NBGP estimates that hundreds of returnees have interviewed for Israel-based positions and many secured job offers, prior to departure (Interview, 2016)
15 Israel Tax Authority reported that between 2008 and 2014 the total volume of tax planning was $21 billion (Barkat Citation2014).
16 A study conducted in 2016 among skilled migrants who returned to Israel found that children’s education was the second most important factor in their return decision (Midgam Consulting and Research Citation2016).