The Growing Conflict Between Humans and Wildlife: Law and Policy as Contributing and Mitigating Factors

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Notes

“Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife.” World Parks Congress (WPC), WPC Recommendations, Recommendation 20: Preventing and Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflicts (8–17 Sept. 2003), http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/pdfs/outputs/recommendations/approved/english/html/r20.htm

Francine Madden, Creating Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife 247, 248–249 (2004) [hereinafter Creating Coexistence].

See Francine Madden, The Human-Mountain Gorilla Conflict Resolution Project (HUGO): A Problem Analysis and Project Design, International Gorilla Conservation Programme (1999) [hereinafter HUGO Analysis]; Francine Madden, Gorillas in the Garden: Human-Wildlife Conflict at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Pol'y Matters (World Conserv. Union, Gland, Switzerland), Mar. 2006, at 180, http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/publications/newsletter/PM14-Section%20III.pdf [hereinafter Gorillas in the Garden]; Steven Kanstoroom, Maryland Task Force on Non-Lethal Wildlife Management, Report to Governor Parris N. Glendening and the Maryland General Assembly: Findings and Recommendations 4 (18 Jan. 2002), http://dnrweb.dnr.state.md.us/download/wildlife/nltfreport.pdf

Charudutt Mishra et al., The Role of Incentive Programs in Conserving the Snow Leopard, 17 Conserv. Biol. 1512, 1514 (2003).

Madden, Creating Coexistence, supra note 3, at 250.

Francine Madden, Can Traditions of Tolerance Help Minimise Conflict? An Exploration of Cultural Factors Supporting Human-Wildlife Coexistence, Pol'y Matters (World Conserv. Union, Gland, Switzerland), Nov. 2004 at 234 (2004), http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/Publications/newsletter/PM13-Section2-part2.pdf [hereinafter Madden, Traditions of Tolerance].

Madden, Creating Coexistence, supra note 3, at 250; David Western & John Waithaka, Policies for Reducing Human-Wildlife Conflict: A Kenya Case Study, in People and Wildlife, Conflict or Coexistence? 357, 371 (Rosie Woodroffe et al., eds., 2005).

See Holly Dublin & Richard Hoare, Searching for Solutions: The Evolution of an Integrated Approach to Understanding and Mitigating Human-Elephant Conflict in Africa, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife 271, 277 (2004); Catherine M. Hill, Farmers’ Perspectives of Conflict at the Wildlife-Agriculture Boundary: Some Lessons Learned from African Subsistence Farmers, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife 279 (2004) [hereinafter Hill, Farmers’ Perspectives]; Laurie Marker & Amy Dickman, Human Aspects of Cheetah Conservation: Lessons Learned from the Namibian Farmlands, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife 297, 300 (2004).

Dublin & Hoare, supra note 9, at 277 (concluding that “[w]ildlife managers must … be supported by clear policies and legal frameworks at the national level” in order to address HWC).

¹¹ This discussion is drawn from Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4.

See Id. at 184.

Jessica Montag, Compensation and Predator Conservation: Limitations of Compensation, Carnivore Damage Prevention News (Coordinated Research Projects for the Conservation and Management of Carnivores in Switz. (KORA), Mari, Switzerland), Feb. 2003, at 2, 5, http://www.kora.unibe.ch/pdf/cdpnews/cdpnews006.pdf; Philip Nyhus et al., Taking the Bite out of Wildlife Damage: The Challenges of Wildlife Compensation Schemes, Conserv. MAG, Spring 2003, http://www.conbio.org/cip/article42tbw.cfm

See e.g., Andrew Loveridge et al., Lion Conservation Research, Workshop 2: Modeling Conflict (2002) [hereinafter Lion Conservation Workshop] (discussing the correlation between types of land-use and zoning policies, and levels of contact between lions and people in Africa); Bernard Toutain et al., Pastoralism and Protected Areas: Lessons Learned from Western Africa, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife 287, 292 (2004); Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 187–188.

Dublin & Hoare, supra note 9, at 277; see also Madden, Gorilla in the Garden, supra note 4, at 190 (concluding that prevention and mitigation of human-gorilla conflict near Bwindi National Park, Uganda would require major changes in patterns of land use in surrounding areas).

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 185–188 (in the absence of land-use planning that takes account of presence of gorillas in Bwindi National Park, local Ugandans near the park have expanded cultivation of crops such as bananas, coffee, and maize along the park's margins, tempting gorillas to leave the park to feed on these crops).

Vincent Shauri, Lawyers’ Envtl. Action Team (LEAT), The New Wildlife Policy in Tanzania: Old Wine in a New Bottle? (1999), http://www.leat.or.tz/publications/wildlife.policy/wildlife.policy.pdf

Sonam Wangyel Wang, The Impacts of Wildlife Damage and Conservation Policies on Farmer Atti-tudes in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan (2004) (master's thesis, Cornell University).

This and subsequent discussions of this example are based on Hillary Mayell, Satellites Reveal How Rare Elephants Survive Desert, Nat'l Geographic News, 27 Sept. 2002, http://news.nationalgeographic. com/news/2002/09/0927_020927_mali.html

G. Nasieku Tarayia, The Legal Perspectives of the Maasai Culture, Customs, and Traditions, 21 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 183, 186–189 (2004), http://www.law.arizona.edu/Journals/AJICL/AJICL2004/Vol211/Tarayia.pdf

See David Ole Sur, Opening Address, in Wildlife and People: Conflict and Conservation in Masai Mara, Kenya 1, 2 (Int'l Inst. for Env't & Dev. (IIED) Wildlife & Dev. Series No. 14, 2003), http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdf/full/9225IIED.pdf

See Id.at 33–34.

Amirtharaj Williams et al., Elephant-Human Conflicts in Rajaji National Park, Northwestern India, 29 Wildlife Soc'y Bull. 1097, 1102 (2001).

Marker & Dickman, supra note 9, at 299.

Rocky Mountain Insurance Information Association (RMIIA), Deer and Other Wildlife on the Road, http://rmiia.org/Auto/Traffic_Safety/Wildlife_on_the_road.htm (citing the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety).

See David Baron, The Beast in the Garden (2003); Kanstoroom, supra note 4.

See CARE International in Uganda, Rights, Equity & Protected Areas Programme, Report: Advocacy on Environmental Rights and Entitlements 8 (2005) [hereinafter CARE Report ].

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 183; HUGO Analysis , supra note 4, at 27; CARE Report , supra note 27, at 8.

Mishra et al., supra note 5, at 1513; Kelvin Khisa, Testing of Techniques for Resolving Conflicts in Natural Resource Management: The Case of Nairobi National Park in Kenya 9, 40 (2001), http://www.unesco.org/mab/bursaries/mysrept/2001/Khisa/Khisa.pdf; Henry Nicholls, The Conservation Business, 9 PLoS Biol. e310 (2004), http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020310.

See Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 4.

See Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 370.

See Raymond Bonner, At the Hand of Man: Peril and Hope for Africa's Wildlife (1994).

See An Impossible Dream (Ian Parker & Stanley Blezard, eds., 2001).

See Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 362.

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 185.

Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 360. See also Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 27.

Mark Axelrod, Book Review, 23 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 387, 387 (2004) (discussing findings and recommendations in Ruchi Pant, Customs and Conservation: Cases of Traditional and Modern Law in India and Nepal (Community Based Conservation in South Asia Series No. 7, 2002)).

K.S. Rao et al., Crop Damage and Livestock Depredation by Wildlife: A Case Study from Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India, 66 J. Envtl. Mgmt. 317, 320 (2002).

Id. at 325.

Hill, Farmers’ Perspectives, supra note 9, at 282.

Id.

Steven H. Fritts, Minnesotans for Sustainability, Wolf Depredation on Livestock in Minnesota, http://www.mnforsustain.org/wolf_depredation_on_livestock_in_minnesota.htm (2002).

Baron, supra note 26.

Id.

Adrian Treves & K. Ullas Karanth, Human-Carnivore Conflict and Perspectives on Carnivore Management Worldwide, 17 Conserv. Biol. 1491, 1493 (2003).

Id.

Id.

Id.

Laine R. Stowell & Robert C. Willging, Bear Damage to Agriculture in Wisconsin, in 5 Proceedings of the E. Wildlife Damage Control Conference 96, 100 (1991), http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=ewdcc5.

Khisa, supra note 29, at 1. See also Wang, supra note 18, at 20.

Ecotourism, defined as “[r]esponsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people,” in 2004 reportedly grew three times faster than traditional tourism. International Ecotourism Society (TIES), Ecotourism Fact Sheet, http://206.161.82.194/WebModules/WebArticlesNet/articlefiles/15-NEW%20Ecotourism%20Factsheet%20Sept%2005.pdf (2005).

Rodney Jackson & Rinchen Wangchuk, A Community-Based Approach to Mitigating Livestock Depredation by Snow Leopards, 9 Hum. Dimensions of Wildlife, 307, 312 (2004), http://www.snowleopardconservancy.org/pdf/A%20community-based%20approach%20to%20mitigating%20livestock%20depredation%20by%20snow%20leopards%20-%20Jackson%20&%20Wangchuk.pdf; Rao et al., supra note 38, at 320.

See Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 4.

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 182; HUGO Analysis, supra note 4 at 24.

Around Yellowstone National Park, for example, there is continual tension and debate about the transmission of brucellosis from buffalo to cattle and its effect on rancher's livelihood and the health of the livestock. Roger Di Silvestro, Bison on the Firing Line, 35 Nat'l Wildlife (1997), http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=48&articleID=630

See Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 32 (discussing transmission of the fatal disease of bovine tuberculosis from cattle to wild buffalo and lion populations in and around Kruger National Park, South Africa).

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 184; HUGO Analysis, supra note 4 at 37 (discussing transmission of human diseases to mountain gorillas in Uganda).

See Laurence Frank, Getting Along with Lions, 106 Wildlife Conservation 36, 40 (2003) (discussing the risk of transmission of canine distemper and rabies to wildlife from dogs guarding livestock against predators).

Kanstoroom, supra note 4, at 23.

Id.

See Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 12.

Id.

Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 186; Dublin & Hoare, supra note 9, at 277; Khisa, supra note 29, at 2; Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 368.

See Kanstoroom, supra note 4, at 1.

See e.g., Khisa, supra note 29, at 45; Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 365–367.

Madden, Traditions of Tolerance, supra note 7, at 235.

See e.g., Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 34; Western & Waithaka, supra note 8, at 357; Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 189.

See Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 14.

See e.g., Lion Conservation Workshop, supra note 14, at 4; Madden, Gorillas in the Garden, supra note 4, at 189.