Getting Beyond Consumption Without Conscience and Production Without Prudence: The Governance of Globalizing Small-Scale Fisheries

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge Grazzia Matamoros for comments on this article.

Funding

This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, Coupled Human and Natural Systems Program (CNH-0815966).

Notes

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6 Allison, supra note 1.

7 Id.

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9 Kenneth Ruddle, Household and Community Factors Affecting Development of Small-Scale Fish Farming in Africa, inAquaculture Development: Social Dimensions of an Emerging Industry (Conner Bailey, Svein Jentoft, & Peter Sinclair eds., 1996).

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14 See infra Part 3.

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18 Dubbink & van Vliet, supra note 5.

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20 Aswani, supra note 10.

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23 Mansfield, supra note 19; Dubbink & van Vliet, supra note 5.

24 Allison, supra note 1.

25 Hilborn et al., supra note 21.

26 Eusebio R. Jacinto & Robert S. Pomeroy, Developing Markets for Small-Scale Fisheries: Utilizing the Value Chain Approach, in Small-scale Fisheries Management: Frameworks and Approaches for the Developing World 160 (Robert S. Pomeroy & Neil L. Andrew eds., 2011).

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30 Aswani, supra note 10.

31 Novak & Axelrod, supra note 16.

32 Jacinto & Pomeroy, supra note 26.

33 Novak & Axelrod, supra note 16.

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35 James E. Wilen, Why Fisheries Management Fails: Treating Symptoms Rather Than the Cause, 78 Bull. of Marine Sci. 529 (2006); Hilborn et al., supra note 21.

36 Mahon, supra note 2.

37 Aswani, supra note 10; Adhuri et al., supra note 11.

38 Allison, supra note 1.

39 Mansfield, supra note 19.

40 Allison et al., supra note 29; Hilborn et al., supra note 21.

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42 Adhuri et al., supra note 11.

43 Allison, supra note 29.

44 Benjamin Cashore, Legitimacy and the Privatization of Environmental Governance: How Non-State Market Driven (NSMD) Governance Systems Gain Rule-Making Authority, 15 Governance 503–529 (2002); Steven Bernstein & Benjamin Cashore, Can Non-State Global Governance Be Legitimate? An Analytical Framework, 1 Reg. & Governance 347–371 (2007).

45 Bernstein & Cashore, supra note 44.

46 Stefano Ponte, The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and the Making of a Market for “Sustainable Fish,” 12 J. of Agrarian Change 300–315 (2012).

47 Id.

48 Id.

49 Id. Walmart, Sainsbury, Whole Foods, Carrefour, Target, McDonald's, and Aldi are a few.

50 Michel Kaiser & Gareth Edwards-Jones, The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation, 20 Conservation Biology 392–398 (2006).

51 Philip Schleifer, Private Governance Undermined: India and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, 16 Global Envtl. Pol. 38–58 (2016).

52 Beatrice Crona et al., Towards a Typology of Interactions Between Small-Scale Fisheries and Global Seafood Trade, 65 Marine Pol'y 1–10 (2016); Schleifer, supra note 51.

53 Simon Bush et al., The “Devils Triangle” of MSC Certification: Balancing Credibility, Accessibility and Continuous Improvement, 37 Marine Pol'y 288–293 (2013).

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55 W. Adger et al., Nested and Teleconnected Vulnerabilities to Environmental Change, 7 Frontiers Ecology & Env't 150–157 (2009).

56 Crona et al., supra note 52.

57 Kristin Schmitt & Daniel Kramer, Road Development and Market Access on Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast: Implications for Household Fishing and Farming Practices, 36 Envtl. Conservation 289–300 (2009); J. Kittinger et al., Emerging Frontiers in Social-Ecological Systems Research for Sustainability of Small-Scale Fisheries, 5 Current Op. Envtl. Sustainability 352–357 (2013); Adger et al., supra note 55.

58 Mark Axelrod et al., Cascading Globalization and Local Response: Indian Fishers' Response to Export Market Liberalization, 24 J. Env't & Dev. 267 (2015).

59 Beatrice Crona et al., Using Social-Ecological Syndromes to Understand Impacts of International Seafood Trade on Small-Scale Fisheries, 35 Global Envtl. Change 162–175 (2015); Gareth Porter, Trade Competition and Pollution Standards: “Race to the Bottom” or “Stuck at the Bottom,” 8 J. Env't Dev. 109, 133 (1999).

60 Benedict Kingsbury, The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy, the World Trade Organization, and the Liberal Project to Reconceptualize International Law, 5 Y.B. Int'l Envtl. L. 1 (1995).

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62 Helen Scales et al., Keeping Bandits at Bay?, 313 Science 612–614 (2006); Cinner & McClanahan, supra note 13.

63 Omar Defeo & Juan Carlos Castilla, Governance and Governability of Coastal Shellfisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean: Multi-Scale Emerging Models and Effects of Globalization and Climate Change, 4 Current Op. Envtl. Sustainability 344–350 (2012).

64 Adger et al., supra note 55.

65 See generally Crona et al., supra note 52; Crona et al., supra note 59.

66 Aswani, supra note 10.

67 Allison, supra note 1.

68 Rasmus Heltberg, Property Rights and Natural Resource Management in Developing Countries, 16 J. Econ. Surveys 189–214 (2002).

69 E. Hviding, Contextual Flexibility: Present Status and Future of Customary Marine Tenure in Solomon Islands, 40 Ocean & Coastal Mgmt. 253–269 (1998).

70 Ruddle, supra note 9.

71 Frank Ellis & Edward Allison, Livelihood Diversification and Natural Resource Access (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Dep't., LSP Working Paper 9, 2004), ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/ad689e/ad689e00.pdf (report is disseminated through the Livelihood Support Programme (LSP) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

72 J. E. Cinner et al., Co-Management of Coral Reef Social-Ecological Systems, 109 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. 5219–5222 (2012).

73 Allison Edward, Big Laws, Small Catches: Global Ocean Governance and the Fisheries Crisis, 13 J. Int'l Dev. 933, 936–940 (2001).

74 R. Willmann, Group and Community-Based Fishing Rights, in Use of Property Rights in Fisheries Management: Proceedings of the Fish Rights 99 Conference, Western Australia, November 11–19, 1999, Part 1, at 51, 55 (R. Shotton ed., 2000).

75 Ray Hilborn, J.M. (Lobo) Orensanz, & Ana M. Parma, Institutions, Incentives and the Future of Fisheries, 360 Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Biological Sci. 47, 52 (2005).

76 Mónica Pérez-Ramírez & Salvador Lluch-Cota, Fisheries Certification in Latin America: Recent Issues and Perspectives, 35 Interciencia 855, 858 (2010).

77 Jules Pretty, Social Capital and the Collective Management of Resources, 302 Science 1912, 1914 (2003).

78 Michael Cox, Margaret Wilson, & Tyler Pavlowich, The Challenges of Local Governance: Gear-Based Fragmentation in the Dominican Fishery of Buen Hombre, 63 Marine Pol'y 109, 114 (2016); Adhuri, supra note 11.

79 Shankar Aswani, Assessing the Effects of Changing Demographic and Consumption Patterns on Sea Tenure Regimes in the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands, 31 Ambio 272, 282–283 (2002); Joshua E. Cinner, Michael J. Marnane, & Timothy R. McClanahan, Trade, Tenure, and Tradition: Influence of Sociocultural Factors on Resource Use in Melanesia, 19 Conservation Biology 1469, 1275–1276 (2005).

80 Stephen Knack & Philip Keefer, Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation, 112 Q. J. Econ. 1251, 1278 (1997).

81 Samuel Bowles & Herbert Gintis, Social Capital and Community Governance, 112 Econ. J. F419, F430 (2002).

82 James F. Eder, Coastal Resource Management and Social Differences in Philippine Fishing Communities, 33 Hum. Ecology 147–169 (2005).

83 R. Ian Perry et al., Marine Social-Ecological Responses to Environmental Change and the Impacts of Globalization, 12 Fish & Fisheries 427, 442–444 (2011).

84 Xavier Basurto et al., Cooperative and Non-Cooperative Strategies for Small-Scale Fisheries' Self-Governance in the Globalization Era: Implications for Conservation, Ecology & Soc'y, Dec. 2013, at 38.

85 O. Maury et al., A Global Science–Policy Partnership for Progress Toward Sustainability of Oceanic Ecosystems and Fisheries, 5 Current Opinion in Envtl. Sustainability 314–319 (2013).

86 Jennifer Allan Goett, Diasporic Identities, Autochthonous Rights: Race, Gender, and the Cultural Politics of Creole Land Rights in Nicaragua (December 2006) (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin), available at https://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2006/goettd50989/goettd50989.pdf.

87 Id.

88 Id.

89 Christian E. Casillas, Rural Electrification, Climate Change, and Local Economies: Facilitating Communication in Development Policy and Practice on Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast (2012) (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley), available at http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/etd/ucb/text/Casillas_berkeley_0028E_12463.pdf.

90 Ley No. 28, July 9, 1987, Estatuto de la Autonomía de las Regiones de la Costa Atlántica de Nicaragua [Autonomy Statute for the Regions of the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua] La Gaceta, Diario Oficial [L.G.], October 30, 1987 (Nicar.).

91 Ley No. 445, December 13, 2002, Ley del Régimen de Propiedad Comunal de los Pueblos Indígenas y Comunidades Étnicas de las Regiones Autónomas de la Costa Atlántica de Nicaragua y de los Ríos Bocay, Coco, Indio y Maiz [Law of Communal Property Regime of the Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Communities of the Autonomous Regions of the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua and the Rivers Bocay, Coco, Indio and Maiz] La Gaceta, Diario Oficial [L.G.], January 23, 2003 (Nicar.).

92 Casillas, supra note 89.

93 Goett, supra 86.

94 See Schmitt & Kramer, supra note 57; see also Kathryn A. Garland & Raymond R. Carthy, Changing Taste Preferences, Market Demands and Traditions in Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua: A Community Reliant on Green Turtles for Income and Nutrition, 8 Conservation & Soc'y 55 (2010).

95 Goett, supra note 86.

96 See Schmitt & Kramer supra note 57; Garland & Carthy, supra note 94.

97 Garland & Carthy, supra note 94.

98 Casillas, supra note 89.

99 Kara Stevens et al., Impact of Increasing Market Access on a Tropical Small-Scale Fishery, 50 marine pol'y 46–52 (2014).

100 Stevens, supra note 99.

101 Stevens, supra note 99.

102 Casillas, supra note 89.

103 Casillas, supra note 89.

104 Casillas, supra note 89.

105 Casillas, supra note 89.

106 Casillas, supra note 89.

107 Patrick Christie et al., Taking Care of What We Have: Participatory Natural Resource Management on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua (2000).

108 Casillas, supra note 89.

109 Schmitt & Kramer, supra note 57.

110 Stevens, supra note 99.

111 Id.

112 Cynthia J. Lagueux, Cathi L. Campbell, & Samantha Strinberg, Artisanal Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas, Fishery of Caribbean Nicaragua: I. Catch Rates and Trends, 1991–2011, 9 Plos One, April 16, 2014, e94667.

113 Id.

114 Personal observation of the author (Stevens).

115 Lagueux, Campbell, & Strinberg, supra note 112.

116 Garland & Carthy, supra note 94.

117 See Clarence Gonzales & Svein Jentoft, MPA in Labor: Securing the Pearl Cays of Nicaragua, 47 Envtl. Mgmt. 617, 623–629 (2011) (One local leader asked: “Why do we need to demarcate when international law says that we already own it?”).

118 Id.

119 Global Fish Alliance, The Spiny Lobster Initiative, https://rmportal.net/library/content/global-fish/web/Site/spiny-lobster.html (last visited September 23, 2016).

120 The Corporate Ecosystem Services Review, Guidelines for Identifying Business Risks and Opportunities Arising from Ecosystem Change, Natural Capital Coalition, http://www.naturalcapitalcoalition.org/hub (last visited September 23, 2016).

121 Global Fish Alliance, supra note 119.

122 Mónica Valle-Esquivel, Summary of the Honduras Caribbean Spiny Lobster Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) Pre-Assessment (2011), available at http://seafoodsustainability.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/PreAssessment_Summary_Honduras_Lobster_2011.pdf.

123 MRAG Americas, Inc., Action Plan for Nicaragua's Spiny Lobster Trap Fishery Improvement Project (FIP) (2012), available at http://seafoodsustainability.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Action_Plan_Honduras_Lobster_2012.pdf.

124 World Wildlife Fund, Fishery Improvement Projects: Nicaragua Lobster, WWF Seafood Sustainability, http://seafoodsustainability.org/portfolio/nicaragua-lobster (last updated January 26, 2016) and http://fisheryprogress.org.