Identities in transitional societies

Introduction

As the title of this special issue in the Journal of Psychology in Africa (JPA) alludes, the aim of this issue is to present and debate the manifestation of the multiple dimensions of identity as they evolve in transitional societies. While there is a proliferation of research in the field of interaction between person and society, this issue provides the unique lens of “transition” and its relation to identity in country settings with relatively limited resources; especially African cultural heritage settings.

The world in which we live today is replete with change, transformation, and transition, as well as development and growth in nearly every aspect of life. To various degrees, all societies face some form of transition, either abrupt or gradual. Consequently, all countries are best described as societies in transition. This is particularly true of developing or emerging countries across the globe. In transitional societies, changes are significant and fundamental, and permeate almost every aspect of life; including the social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions. Thus, transitional societies create opportunities for re-imagining the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of life.

The answer to the question “Who am I?” is surprisingly complex. While balancing sameness and difference, exploring and committing to an identity is a lifelong process of incorporating aspects of the past, present, and future. In addition to this, a person’s identity can be described by a variety of “labels” (e.g., gender, race, sexuality, and spirituality). Apart from the fact that the various aspects of oneself become salient at various moments in time, there is also an interplay or intersectionality between these labels. Furthermore, while the formation of one’s identity is a deeply personal process (considering biological aspects, individual characteristics, cognitive abilities, and intrapersonal decisions), it is also shaped by external factors (such as family dynamics, social environments, political contexts, and historical events).

Societal transformations driven by multiculturalism, global culture, and global economies have significance for individuals’ sense of self or their identities. In these dynamic contexts of change, individuals are likely to embark on the complex process of exploring, developing, and committing to who they are, who they want to be, and their place in the world. This special issue presents the perspectives of a variety of scholars from across the world – all focussed on and actively involved in finding answers related to the interesting, complex, and dynamic process of making meaning of identities. The ambient presence of transition in various societies is confirmed by the contribution of research from across the world. Research in this issue emanated from a small rural community in the Eastern Cape (South Africa), through Africa (e.g. Malawi), into Europe (both the Netherlands and various Central Eastern European countries), and to the United States of America (USA).

Contributions

This issue commences with two conceptual papers that provide a framework for the articles that comprise this issue. These two positional papers are followed by ten original research articles and two brief reports; each with innovative context-sensitive applications. Together, these contributions provide a glance into the varied nature of identity in transitional societies, as will become clear in the following paragraphs.

In the first positional paper, Identity integration across cultural transitions: Bridging individual and societal change, Moin Syed presents a theoretical framework to provide clarity on the concept identity. He explains the theoretical constructs of identity integration, as informed by social and developmental psychology. He proposes four forms of identity integration: Contextual integration relates to the synthesis of different life spaces and domains (such as gender, ethnicity, occupation, and religion). Temporal integration implies how individuals make sense of and find continuity in their past, present, and future selves. Ego integration, typified by the non-additive syntheses of both the contextual and temporal dimensions, can be regarded as the truest sense of integration. Person-society integration represents how individuals understand themselves in their social worlds and structures. Syed proposes two types of transitions; namely cultural transitions (shifting life spaces such as relocating to a new country) versus stationary transitions (where individuals are subject to transition and change in their own contexts). Syed explains how these transitions are echoed in the various forms of integration; for example, facing the challenge of “living in two worlds” (contextual), finding continuity across, “before”, and “after” transition (temporal), and balancing master and alternative cultural narratives (person-society).

In the second positional paper, the focus shifts to Identity and acculturation: The case for Africa. In this paper, Byron Adams and Fons van de Vijver discuss acculturation and its interface with identity in multicultural societies. They explain the tri-dimensional model of identity; including personal dimensions (continuity of the intrapersonal aspects that are meaningful to a sense of self, such as personal values, goals and aspirations), relational dimensions (coherence and continuity that result from interpersonal relations and meaningful roles, such as being a parent or friend), and social dimensions (relating to membership of social groups and shared values, norms, rituals, and beliefs, such as culture, religion, ethnicity, and language). They argue for the need to modify Western views that still dominate the understanding of acculturation, to make space for the complexity of processes in the African context where ethnic group membership transcend national boundaries, where there often is no clear majority culture, and where multiple allegiances to multiple domains have to be balanced and accommodated. The social complexities of acculturation and the unique opportunities engrained in the continuous transition in African societies are exemplified in their paper.

In both these positional papers, pertinent questions that should inform research practices regarding identity and transition are asked: How do life contexts and experiences potentially threaten the different forms of identity integration? What opportunities and benefits do transitions provide for identity development and personal growth? How might transition differentially facilitate the various forms of identity integration? What role do the personal, relational, and social aspects of identity pertinent for self-definition play in how individuals create meaning about themselves in their society and relate to the groups with which they interact? Do these aspects build on integrating and navigating the multicultural contexts of which many African societies are made up? The research articles that follow present possible answers to these questions.

The first three research articles in this issue apply the multidimensional model of acculturation in unique settings and ways. Firstly, employing a unique and interesting variation of Adams and Van de Vijver’s multidimensional model of acculturation, Ferguson, Ferguson, and Ferguson explain “remote acculturation” in their contribution titled “I am Malawian, Multicultural or British”: Remote acculturation and identity formation among urban adolescents in Malawi. Their investigation provides evidence of the multidimensional acculturation effects on identity by identifying three remote acculturation clusters in urban adolescents in Malawi; namely Traditional Malawians, Westernised Multicultural Malawians, and British-assimilated Malawians. Their findings emphasise the significant positive role of remote acculturation in the identity formation and well-being of 21st-century, sub-Saharan African adolescents. Another perspective on acculturation is provided in Identity as a key factor in the acculturation of young Moroccan-Dutch Adults. In this contribution, Azghari, Van de Vijver, and Hooghiemstra consider the acculturation challenges and social identity of young Moroccan-Dutch students who have limited social resources and face varied social transitions in the Dutch society. They found that young Moroccan-Dutch students do not pursue integration (combining two cultures) and that achieving this ideal combination of equal appreciation of two cultures is difficult. Somewhat in contrast to the views of Ferguson et al., their findings challenge the view that integration among young immigrants is always associated with adaptation and well-being; alluding to the complexity of these processes. In another contribution from the Netherlands, Identity experiences of black people in the Netherlands, Zonneveld, Brand, and Adams employ the tri-dimensional model of identity in combination with acculturation strategies to explore how black people living in the Netherlands define themselves. With themes ranging from acceptance and inclusion to stereotypes and separation, as well as social membership and status versus person-specific characteristics, they conclude that identity construction among their black respondents is reliant on both their ethnic community membership and their membership of the mainstream Dutch community.

In the next three articles, collective and contextual identities in the form of national, ethnic, public/private identities are considered. In their article, National collective identity in transitional societies: Salience and relations to life satisfaction for youth in South Africa, Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Kosovo and Romania, Dimitrova et al. investigate the salience of national collective identity and its associations with life satisfaction among adolescents living in South Africa, Albania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Kosovo, and Romania. Recognising the multidimensional nature of national identity, with salient dimensions such as self-categorisation, evaluation, importance, attachment, and behavioural involvement; they found that higher levels of national collective identity are associated with increased levels of life satisfaction. In the next contribution, the complexities of searching for and committing to an ethnic identity in the multi-cultural and transitioning South African society are addressed in “Carrying the culture … ”: Ethnic identity development in black African Adolescents by Du Plessis and Naudé. Following this, related to ethnic identity, Thomas explores the salience of ethnic collective self-esteem among South African students in Private and public collective self-esteem among black and white South African students. Considering intergenerational marginalisation (because of the apartheid legacy), she explains how the expression of collective self-esteem may be tied to public images for white students, while private images are preferred by black South African students.

In the subsequent three articles, specific settings, environments, or experiences (such as parental absence, family violence, and stereotyping) that prompt identity development are explored. In “I am making it without you, dad”: Resilient academic identities of black female university students with absent fathers by Zulu and Munro, the academic identity constructions of two black father-absent females are explored using resilience theory and an African metaphysical framework. In their conversations with two black female students, Zulu and Munro witnessed how paternal absence can be communicated as an opportunity for academic success, thus serving as a pathway towards a resilient academic identity. The effect of family violence on identity construction is explored by Petersen, Grobler, and Botha in Adolescent experiences of sense of self in the context of family violence in a South African community. They found adolescents’ self-identities in the context of family violence to be characterised by polarities of love versus hate, protection versus blame, compassion versus anger and resentment; as well as coping and resilience despite elevated risks for self-harm behaviour. In “Breaking the cycle”: Black adolescents’ experiences of being stereotyped during identity development, Lombaard and Naudé explore how the experience of being stereotyped relates to identity. While the adolescents reported stereotype vulnerability (how the experience of identity-compromising stereotyping shapes identity outcomes), they also reiterated how stereotypical expectations can be contradicted and eradicated through intergroup contact.

The last article addresses the multiple dimensions of sexual identity. In Reparative sexual orientation therapy effects on gay sexual identities, Van Zyl, Nel, and Govender explore gay males’ identities and experiences with sexual reparative therapy. The results of their study point to strong identification with homosexual orientations despite counselling for an alternative heterosexual identity and despite early childhood social development in a patriarchal society.

In a brief report focussed on rural living identities, Identity formation among IsiXhosa-speaking adolescents in a rural Eastern Cape community in South Africa, Alberts and Bennett investigate identity-related choices practised among rural South African isiXhosa-speaking adolescents. Despite small nuances in gender, their study indicates that identity statuses related to commitment are significant in adolescents’ decision-making.

The research section of this issue is concluded with a brief report on Adolescent identities in the cyberworld. In this report, Van der Merwe explores how adolescents express their identities in virtual worlds, how they inhabit two realities, and how they experiment with new assumed and idealised identities.

This issue is concluded with two book reviews. This first is by Prof Jonathan Jansen, former vice-chancellor and rector of the University of the Free State, South Africa; who provides an interesting take on Ferial Haffajee’s book with the captivating title What if there were no whites in South Africa? Completing the circle, as a last review, the contribution of Moin Syed (who wrote the first positional paper) and his colleague, Kate C. McLean, in the edited book titled The Oxford handbook of identity development, is highlighted.

Reflective summary

Reflecting on the broad array of contributions in this special issue, various themes can be highlighted. These are now considered drawing on the conceptual ideas presented in the two positional papers that introduce this issue.

To capture the complex nature of identity, the authors in this issue utilised a multiplicity of theoretical lenses (including social identity theory, Gestalt perspectives, resilience theory, and an African metaphysical framework); as well as various methodological approaches and techniques (including hierarchical cluster analyses, multi-group structural equation modelling, conversation analysis, hermeneutic phenomenology, interpretative phenomenological analysis, and mixed-methods designs).

While a life span approach to identity development is supported by most authors in this issue, it is clear that adolescence and emerging adulthood is regarded as the developmental stage in which identity is prioritised (as stated in the first sentences of Syed’s positional paper). Apart from one contribution of Van Zyl et al., who focussed on older individuals, most research for this issue was done with adolescents, school learners, and students.

Personal, relational, and social dimensions of identity comprise a tri-dimensional model of identity. Adams and Van de Vijver address the multidimensional nature of identity, the importance of intersectionality, and salience of various identity domains were reiterated in the inclusion of aspects such as national, ethnic, public/private, social, sexual, race- and gender-related, and even virtual identities. Although not an all-inclusive list of identity domains, these represent various domains that can be related to contextual forms of identity. Certainly, the salience of identities in different life spaces and domains is addressed. While some of the contributions attempt to explain how these identities interact with one another (as suggested by Syed); most research contributions in this issue document the domains separately, and less evidence of the synthesis of domains or intersectionality of constructs (as mentioned by Adams and Van de Vijver) is seen. This probably alludes to the complexity of researching this integration.

Relating to Syed’s conceptualisation of temporal integration, some of the studies in this issue endeavoured a more narrative approach; attempting to integrate sense of self as articulated in past, present, and future selves. The conversational approach followed by Zulu and Munro allowed participants to tell stories of the past and integrate these in their present academic identities and views of future success. Also, in the work of Petersen et al., reflections on past violence, present experiences, and visions of future selves were considered.

Probably due to the theme of this issue, much evidence is seen of Syed’s concept of person-society integration, and many contributions explored how individuals understand themselves in their social worlds and structures. These coincided with the challenges of “living in two worlds” (contextual) and finding continuity across transition (temporal). Both the cultural transitions and stationary transitions proposed by Syed are witnessed in this issue. While the contributions of Zonneveld et al. and Azghari et al. explain the cultural transitions of individuals relocating to new contexts; Dimitrova et al., Thomas, Lombaard and Naudé, Du Plessis and Naudé, and Alberts and Bennett reflect on the effect of stationary transitions – the experiences of individuals who live in countries typified by substantial political, economic, cultural, and societal changes. Ferguson et al.’s work presents an interesting combination of the dual experience of both cultural and stationary transition, in the sense that both local transitions and new cultures (albeit remote) are acknowledged in their contribution.

The processes of and pathways to identity development, as well as the individualised nature of identity explorations are captured in the uniqueness of the narrations, considerations of possible selves, and contextualised enactments related to identity. Especially the role of challenges experienced as facilitator during identity formation is articulated in research on parental absence (Zulu & Munro), family violence (Petersen et al.), and the experience of stereotypes (Lombaard & Naudé). Another unique context presented by Van der Merwe, is the realm of the virtual world.

One prominent transition process is acculturation practices typified by the psychological and cultural changes and the renegotiation of the salience of various identities through contact with “other” people, contexts, and cultures; as explained by Adams and Van de Vijver. The complexity of these processes in the African context and beyond is presented aptly by especially Ferguson et al., Azghari et al., and Zonneveld et al. Both the social complexities of acculturation, and the unique opportunities it offers, are highlighted.

Although this issue does not propose final answers to the “Who am I?” question, it provides a glance into this dynamic phenomenon in a specific point in time and space – to hopefully stimulate further research in the field.

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to thank the Editor-in-Chief, Prof Elias Mpofu, for the opportunity to publish this special issue in the JPA. Your support and close mentoring role made this publication possible.

I would also like to gratefully acknowledge the various colleagues involved in the reviewing of manuscripts. Your selfless dedication, thorough reviews, and timely feedback added value to the final product.

This exciting compilation of novel research would not have been possible without the contribution of thoughtful and dedicated scholars and researchers whose individual and collective contributions provide a sketch of identity in transitional societies.