Participant Intoxication and Self–Other Dynamics in the Wa context

Abstract

Self–other distinctions are always made in a dynamic process of incorporation and exclusion, based on locally produced sociocultural rules constantly redefined in practice. In the present paper, I discuss the formation of Wa identity and xenology through rice beer drinking, a key arena of social interaction governed by intricate rules. The shared drinking of home-made beer not only shapes Wa sociality and invites the ‘participant intoxication’ of anyone who would submit to Wa mores (including foreign ethnographers), but also defines as outsiders those who would refuse to share, including those appalled by the beer's uncleanliness, real or imagined. Rice beer drinking is briefly compared with betel chewing and smoking tobacco, and is also contrasted with commodified Chinese liquor in terms of their use and effect in social interaction and ethnic distinction in the Wa lands at the China–Burma frontier, with special attention to the problem of Wa autonomy.

Keywords:

• Wa
• China
• Burma
• Rice Beer
• Liquor
• Sociality
• Hospitality
• Pollution
• Ethnic Relations

Acknowledgements

This is an abbreviated version of a paper originally presented at the Association for Asian Studies meeting in San Diego, USA, in 2000; the conference ‘Ethnicity, Politics and Cross-Border Cultures in Southwest China’, Lund University, Sweden, 2000; and at the International Burma Studies Conference, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2002. I thank the participants for their precious commentary. In addition, I thank Timo Kaartinen, Rupert Stasch, Steve Sangren, Wang Ningsheng, Jeremy Milsom and others, including two anonymous reviewers, for valuable suggestions; the Wenner–Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, China Times Cultural Foundation and the Pacific Cultural Foundation for financial support; and the Wa people, especially of the old Yong Ou realm, for their generosity towards an inquisitive guest.

Notes

1. For overviews, see Wilson (2005), Dietler (2006), de Garine & de Garine (2001), Fournier & D'Onofrio (1991), Gutmann (1999), Douglas (1987), Marshall (1979), Washburne (1961), Mitchell (2004) and The Social Issues Research Centre (1998).

2. Also known as the ‘south-east Asian massif’ (Michaud 2006) or as ‘Zomia’ (van Schendel 2002; Scott 2009).

3. See also the intriguing development of Evans-Pritchard's theory in Baumann & Gingrich (2004).

4. On the political history and headhunting warfare of the Wa, see Fiskesjö (1999, 2000, 2009).

5. On the Wa State, see Kramer (2007), Fiskesjö (2010).

6. I use the Chinese-imposed Latin-based alphabet, modified to reflect the Yong Ou dialect in Ximeng Wa Autonomous County, once part of the Wa heartland and now in China's Yunnan Province bordering Burma's ‘Wa State’. On Wa orthography, see Watkins & Kunst (2003–6).

7. On modern brewing, see Briggs, Hough & Stevens (1981–2).

8. The neighbouring Shan, Kachin etc. have long traditions of distilling liquor (Scott & Hardiman 1900–1/1983).

9. Terwiel (1992, 132 ff.) reviews similar techniques used in Assam and Burma; Hutton (1921/1969, pp. 97–8) describes the rice beer of the Angami Naga (similar to the Wa in certain respects), called zu, a term also used by the Chin (Lehman 1963, p. 57) and other Nagas (Terwiel 1992, p. 142).

10. The alternative is to carry a full loh, but infusion in the field is avoided because of suspicion of water not derived from the usual, safer, sources for drinking and beer making inside the village (or from bamboo aqueducts running from such safe sources).

11. The lei is one of few remaining spaces for carvings after the demise of large-scale carving on the wooden boards on house ends—especially that of the ‘Big House’ of the traditional o lang chief, an office now suspended. Wa art also persists in shoulder bag designs (Formoso 2001).

12. Tea also has a long history at funeral wakes etc., but is not shared like rice beer. For more on tea among neighbouring people, see Li (2008).

13. Space limits preclude a discussion of the significance of betel and tobacco, both widespread in the same regions as rice beers. I myself became an avid betel chewer to avoid cigarettes but also to pursue betel exchanges. Li (1957/1983b) provides a commentary on betel use in the 1950s. The betel enters Wa country, which is too cold for betel, from Burma (Scott & Hardiman 1900–1/1983, pp. 344–45; Reid 1985; Reichart & Philipsen 1989; Rooney 1993; Achaya 1994, 48 ff.).

14. Note March's (1998, p. 71) comments on the anxiety that may lurk inside such happy expectations, even as the generative power of the yeast and the women's enabling care is celebrated (in Nepal).

15. In the past, three fireplaces were maintained, one for domestic food, one for wild foods and a third for ‘cooking’ rice beer and entertaining guests (Fiskesjö, field notes XIII, pp. 65–72).

16. Cf. Taiwanese aboriginal drinking duos joining their lips at the rim of the same vessel (Barclay 2003, 84 ff.).

17. After years of use, the lei blackens from being caressed and from the smoke on the n'grex rack, but is never washed.

18. For comparative examples, see Netting (1964/1979), Karp (1980), Marshall (1982), Rehfish (1987) and de Garine & de Garine (2001). For the archaeology of competitive feasting, see Dietler (1990, 2006) and Jennings et al. (2005).

19. On drinking styles in ‘multicultural’ settings, see Room (2005). Terwiel (1992, 130 ff.) discusses Tai-speaking Ahom in Assam using rice beer to distinguish themselves from Hindus, as do non-Hindus in Nepal (March 1998).

20. Krasdolfer (2006, p. 304) suggests anthropologists only pretend to accept local food and drink, purposefully alternating this with refusal so as to maintain their privileged distance.

21. Compare Salemink (2003) and Pearson (2009) on how missionaries and soldiers have manipulated Vietnamese highlanders' hospitality.

22. Especially from 1958 onwards (Fiskesjö 2000, pp. 364–73).

23. William Young, letters from Bana Village, Mong Lem, China, October 15, 1923, p. 2 (American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, Records, 1817–1959, in FM 264-4-9) and March 27, 1924 (in FM 264-4-10).