Gambling-gaming convergence: new developments and future directions

ABSTRACT

The distinction between gambling and gaming activities has become increasingly blurred. One of the principal causes of this is technological convergence, a term which refers to the growing co-location and inter-relationship between different classes of activities. Some argue that convergence may increase the appeal and accessibility of gambling to susceptible or vulnerable individuals. Studies into the nature and effects of convergence have expanded considerably over the last decade. However, researchers and policymakers have often struggled to keep abreast of the pace of technological development and of the breadth of topics that now emerge within this research area. To address these issues, we present this special issue, which highlights new developments in gambling-gaming convergence research. Important topics include: social casino games, simulated Internet gambling, skill-based gaming machines, gambling mechanisms on Twitch.tv, substance use across gambling and gaming activities, and, the extent to which gaming might act as a potential ‘gateway’ to gambling. A common theme was that new technologies are constantly enabling innovations and changes to gambling opportunities, which can affect some vulnerable users involved in these activities. We outline further research avenues to better understand the impacts of digital gambling technologies and to support appropriate regulatory and public health responses.

KEYWORDS:

• Convergence
• gambling
• video games
• behavioral addiction
• technology

Introduction

Technological advances have significantly influenced the structure and availability of gambling opportunities. There are now more ways to access gambling products, more portable options to access gambling, and greater tailoring of products and advertisements to individual players than ever before. There has also been increasing integration of gambling with other popular online activities such as gaming and social media (DeCamp, 2020; Griffiths, 2018). This includes gambling-like features such as monetized virtual items obtained via chance-based events found in online video games that can also be used to engage in gambling activities (King & Delfabbro, 2020; Macey & Hamari, 2019; Zendle, Meyer et al., 2020; Zendle, Meyer, Cairns et al., 2020). Conversely, gaming elements such as skill game features are also being introduced into traditional gambling activities (Delfabbro et al., 2020). This blurring of lines between gambling and gaming activities has been referred to as ‘convergence’ and has created challenges for regulators and policymakers (King & Delfabbro, 2019), not only in relation to understanding the definition or boundaries between gaming and gambling but also in relation to the legality of these activities (Derevensky & Griffiths, 2019; McCaffrey, 2020). To advance these discussions of the complexities and the evolving nature of gaming-gambling convergence, we are pleased to introduce this special issue in International Gambling Studies featuring seven papers on diverse and interesting topics related to gambling-gaming convergence.

The empirical literature on convergence has consistently reported a modest association between involvement in gambling-like activities and gambling for real money. For example, individuals who purchase loot boxes or play social casino games appear to be more likely to report gambling for real money (Brooks & Clark, 2019; Dussault et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2014; Zendle et al., 2020). However, it has not always been clear whether these associations reflect an exposure or selection effect. In other words, it may be that some individuals simply are more inclined to engage in many of these activities due to personal characteristics, rather than one activity actually increasing the likelihood of progressing to another activity. A related question in this area is whether excessive or problematic engagement in one activity may increase the risk of problematic engagement in another (Dussault et al., 2017; Hollingshead et al., 2016; Molde et al., 2019). With gambling disorder and gaming disorder sharing similar features in their descriptions in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), it has sometimes been assumed that, because these two conditions are characterized by a persistent pursuit of winning in an interactive activity involving chance and skill to varying degrees, they might be fundamentally related or share underlying risk factors (Choi et al., 2014; Brand et al., 2020; Saunders et al., 2017). This special issue contains a collection of seven articles that examine such issues and contribute to our developing understanding of gaming-gambling convergence. Specifically, the presented articles cover topics of social casino games, simulated Internet gambling, skill gaming machines, gambling mechanisms in Twitch.tv, risk of substance use in problematic gaming and gambling, and the notion that video games act as a gateway to real money gambling.

Li and colleagues proposed a new measure to assess problematic social casino gaming. Based on a study of 436 social casino game players, the Problematic Social Casino Gaming Scale (PSCGS) is a 12-item unidimensional measure that emphasizes the measurement of financial-related harms due to overuse of social casino games. Using latent class analysis, the authors identified three subgroups of social casino gamers based on their severity. Those in the higher risk group based on PSCGS score reported higher scores on measures of gaming disorder and problem gambling, thereby supporting the notion that this construct appears to overlap with these two conditions. The authors also reported that being older and female was associated with problematic social casino gaming, which is a demographic profile not commonly associated with online gaming but appears more consistent with electronic gambling. The results of the study provide insight into the relationship between problematic social casino gaming and problematic gambling and gaming and should enable future investigations of problematic social casino gaming and its associated risks and harms.

Macey and Kinnunen examined the interrelationship between social casino games, gambling, and gaming in Finland. This study is interesting for its examination of gambling and various aspects of digital gaming, including microtransactions which have become a major feature of some games. Drawing from a nationally representative sample of 946 individuals in Finland, the authors reported on cross-sectional relationships between social casino games, free-to-play digital games, microtransaction spending, and online and offline gambling involvement. The study reported stronger associations between social casino games and digital gaming than for social casino games and gambling, which suggests that social casino may have more in common with gaming, despite its greater emphasis on spending money to progress through the activity.

Brosowski and colleagues conducted a 12-month longitudinal study to examine mechanisms that may potentially link simulated internet gambling to gambling with money. The study involved tracking the initiation of gambling and subsequent potential increase of problem gambling with a sample of 1,178 adolescents. Using multiple mediation models, the authors reported that simulated internet gambling was related to the onset of gambling or increased problem gambling via different pathways. The onset of gambling was influenced by the perception of advertising, whereas an increase in problem gambling was predicted by the depth of gambling, cognitive distortions, and Internet gaming. Although gambling participation is often an inconsistent and episodic behavior, these results highlight the multifaceted aspects of simulated gambling behaviors that can arise in early adolescence and some of their potential implications for greater risk of subsequent gambling over time.

Convergence can also refer to the incorporation of gaming mechanisms, including interactive skill-based elements into traditional gambling activities. However, it is unclear how players conceptualize these new elements. Gainsbury and colleagues addressed this gap by conducting focus groups to investigate consumers’ perception of skill gaming machines. Skill gaming machines are electronic gaming machines that incorporate video game elements such as controllers and skill components. The authors report that gamblers expressed uncertainty as to whether skill gaming machines were more like gambling or gaming. There were some difficulties in comprehending the rules of the game and how to play the skill-based component, including keeping track of winnings due to the use of different metrics and virtual currencies. While some gamblers reported enjoying these features or found them exciting, others reported that they were boring or distracting and even stressful. These results highlight the challenges to introducing new elements into conventional gambling activities, including the ways in which certain features may become an impediment to achieving some of the primary motivations to gamble – to win money and escape from reality.

Abarbanel and Johnson examined some emerging forms of gambling and related promotions on Twitch.tv, which is an online streaming/broadcasting platform with a primary focus on gaming. Specifically, the authors examined the legal and social definition of gambling, especially in light of the emerging gambling-like elements on Twitch.tv. The authors found that Twitch.tv contained various chance-based elements including gambling with social prizes, predicting in game winners, and raffles. These chance-based elements were offered via extensions, which are add-ons that enhance the ability for viewers to engage with content creators. The authors found that these gambling-like elements included at least one component of the legal definition of gambling: consideration, chance, and/or prize. However, they did not meet the legal definition of gambling as they did not involve wagering of money or because the different components of the legal definition of gambling was shared between the content creators and viewers. The results may encourage discussions from games researchers on the role of gambling in the gaming industry.

Mills and colleagues examine the extent to which problematic engagement in gaming and gambling may be related to problematic substance use in a large sample of adults aged 18–27 years. The authors administered standard scales for these risk behaviors, including the PGSI, IGDSF9, and the ASSIST. They reported that problematic gaming (22.7%) was far more common than problematic gambling (6.1%) and that there was a small group (2.2%) who engaged excessively in both activities. Potentially problematic gamblers were more likely to report the use of alcohol than gamers. Gamers were generally less likely to report substance use, and those in the ‘risky’ gaming group reported lower alcohol use than those in the normal gaming group. The combined gaming and gambling group were more likely to use substances more often, controlling for important covariates; however, the pattern of results suggested that gambling had stronger associations with drug use than gaming. This study suggests that, while there are some similarities between the symptoms of problem gambling and gaming, these two conditions may be associated with rather different profiles of risky behavior, including differing levels of risk of substance use.

A common argument advanced in the area of convergence has been that certain video games may act as a ‘gateway’ to gambling activities (Gainsbury et al., 2016; Hayer et al., 2018). Delfabbro and King examined the literature on the so-called ‘gateway’ hypothesis by evaluating 18 studies that investigate various relationships between gambling and gaming. The authors examined three lines of evidence for the gateway hypothesis: (i) the statistical overlap between gambling and gaming, (ii) the relationship between problem gambling and problem gaming symptoms, and (iii) the relationship between studies of loot box spending and gambling. The authors reported that there was only a small correlation between overall gambling and video-game engagement and this could be accounted for by demographic and personality variables. They conclude there is insufficient evidence to support a direct relationship between problem gaming and problem gambling. However, problem gambling symptoms appear to be positively and consistently related to loot-box purchases. They conclude that further longitudinal research is necessary to strengthen our understanding of the links between video-gaming and gambling.

Conclusion and future directions

New technologies have enabled many innovations and changes to gambling opportunities. The last decade has seen the expansion and sophistication of gambling products on the Internet and the emergence of new forms of unregulated gambling with virtual currencies, in addition to ‘gambling-like’ online content such as loot boxes and social casino games. The research literature in this diverse area is growing rapidly in response to the academic and regulatory interest in these activities, particularly in relation to younger users who routinely use the underlying technologies. Although there have been many insightful studies on these topics, it is clear that further research is needed to understand the continuing impact of these changing gambling and gambling-related technologies. We believe that the field would benefit from addressing the following research priorities. First, although both gambling and gaming are global phenomena, much of our knowledge on gaming-gambling convergence has come from Western countries. Future studies should consider how it operates and affects gambling participation across different cultures and sociocultural contexts. Second, more qualitative research, including case studies and interviews that investigate the perceptions and experiences of users who are regularly engaged in these activities would provide valuable insights and help extend quantitative approaches. For example, do gamers who purchase loot boxes believe they are gambling or do they view loot boxes as an investment in their gaming experience? Third, longitudinal research to identify the risk and protective factors associated with convergence is lacking and much needed. Continued research will help to examine the potential impacts of digital gambling technologies and gambling hybrid products, including the identification of people who are more vulnerable to overinvolvement in these activities, and develop regulatory and public health responses to address problem gambling and gambling-related harm.

Disclosure statement

Competing interests

HSK has received funding from the Alberta Gambling Research Institute (AGRI), Gambling Research Exchange Ontario, and the National Centre on Responsible Gambling. He has received scholarships from AGRI. HSK has presented at the New Horizon’s conference with the conference costs being covered by the British Columbia Lottery Corporation

DLK has received funding from the Victorian Responsible Gaming Foundation and the Australian Research Council. DLK is a member of a WHO advisory group on gaming disorder.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Hyoun S. Kim

Hyoun S. Kim is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Ryerson University. His research focuses on the transdiagnostic mechanisms of addictions and their mental health co-morbidities. His research has also examined the gambling-gaming convergence including the migration from social casino games to real money gambling.

Daniel L. King

Dr. Daniel L. King is a Senior Research Fellow and clinical psychologist in the College of Education, Psychology, & Social Work at Flinders University. He has authored more than 150 peer-reviewed publications, including the book ‘Internet Gaming Disorder: Theory, Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention’.