Experiences from great vocational education policy change in China - a teacher perspective

ABSTRACT

Chinese secondary school vocational education has been given increased prominence over recent years to support the country’s need for a highly skilled workforce and continued economic growth. The integration of secondary vocational and higher vocational education to move towards a tertiary system embodying lifelong education with Chinese characteristics is central to this vision. It is within this policy context that we provide a critical exploration of vocational education and training (VET), and the implications and impact on teachers and their practices using the notion of vocational pedagogical capital. Teachers at one vocational secondary school are interviewed to explore their perceptions of recent policy changes and their potential impact on their practices going forward. They were optimistic about the potential impact of recent changes on their teaching practices, but their perceptions revealed a potential lack of progress to date. The article concludes that there is some way to go before the vision for Chinese vocational education is realised.

KEYWORDS:

• Vocational education
• teachers
• curriculum
• China
• secondary school

Introduction

This article adopts a case study approach to provide a critical examination of vocational education and training (VET) in China and, in doing so, pays particular attention to reforms and developments this century and their effects on vocational teachers’ practices and development. We explore how the shifting policy context effects the practices of vocational teachers. The article theorises these experiences using the notion of vocational pedagogical capital to reveal how a misalignment between lecturer’s academic education and vocational expertise impacts the quality of VET teaching and learning which may contribute to a reinforcement of the long standing, lower status position of VET within China’s tertiary system despite positive policy developments.

There have been several problems facing China’s VET system over recent years including its management; investment and allocation funding; the imbalanced development of VET between urban and rural areas; lack of teachers, curriculum, and teaching methods; and its perceived low status (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). As a result of the ever-increasing and global demand for skilled, well-trained workers, VET has gained importance in China (Li & Pilz, 2023). Therefore, it has been argued that reform is necessary because it currently does not meet the country’s industrial needs (Klorer & Stepan, 2015; State Council, 2017a; Stewart, 2015) as there is a mismatch between the required and existing skilled labour force (State Council, 2017b). The need to upskill China’s workforce has led to several VET reforms over the last 20 years (State Council, 2005, 2017b, 2018), the impact of the most recent (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022) are considered within this article, which pay particular attention to curriculum design and teacher training needs. We focus on the experiences of vocational lecturers’ and their views on the extent to which curriculum and teacher development in VET could be a catalyst to enhance its status and promote, ‘positive social sentiments and attitudes towards vocational education and skilled workers … ’ (G. Wang, 2022, p. 11). Attention has been given to teachers as their performance impacts greatly on learner outcomes, the process of learning, and how curriculum is implemented (Li, 2017).

The study takes place in Southern China in a vocational secondary school. In focusing on the influence of curriculum and teacher development, this article endeavours to address the following research question: what are Chinese VET teachers’ perceptions on the impact of recent Government policy, particularly in relation to curriculum and teacher development, and its potential effectiveness in future? The following sub-questions were designed to explore this broader, overarching question:

1. How effective has the VET curriculum development been perceived by those who are tasked with its teaching?

2. What teacher training is needed for VET programmes to be effectively delivered?

Context

Despite its size, VET has been viewed least favourably within China’s education system with it considered a second-class education in some quarters (Hansen & Woronov, 2013). The prestige associated with vocational education is seen as being lower than that of academic education due to a perceived lack of general quality (Hansen & Woronov, 2013) and a lack of teaching quality specifically (Billett et al., 2020). In China, many vocational students come from lower socio-economic backgrounds with VET being described as a ‘broken ladder’ that is unable to provide upward mobility (Xiong, 2015, p. 161). As a result of VET resources across different regions of China being distributed unevenly, there have been differences in the learning conditions (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). Teachers of VET have been shown to lack both competence and practical experience, with teaching methods focusing primarily on memorising reproduction and testing of knowledge, and curriculum design unable to keep on top of the challenges created by developments in VET (Schmidtke & Chen, 2012; Tian, 2022).

The unevenness of VET policy and practice is not unique to China, research has shown that tertiary systems globally face similar challenges. Much of the existing research into VET has shown that its value has been questioned around the world, particularly by students in relation to the education that it provides and the type of work that can follow (Hao & Pilz, 2021). In England, questions have been raised about the value of VET and the extent to which variations in its curriculum led to low-skilled, low-paid, and precarious employment, which continues to reinforce the divide between academic and vocational routes into the labour market (Esmond & Atkins, 2020). Others have examined how VET is positioned globally, by identifying how the relationship between the curriculum and labour market structures shape the outcomes of these graduates in different international contexts (Wheelahan & Moodie, 2016).

Comparisons across Australia and Canada have examined skill ‘mismatches’ between VET qualifications and occupations, arguing these occur due to poor governance, an unwillingness by governments to intervene in the labour market, and an over reliance on VET providers and teachers to anticipate future labour market needs (Wheelahan & Moodie, 2017). Whilst it is questionable whether VET institutions and individual teachers can reasonably do this, there is no doubt that they play a key part in workforce development (Orr, 2019). As Grollmann notes:

In most industrialized countries, some two‐thirds of the workforce that constitutes the backbone of the economy are intermediate‐level workers and employees, who have learned a substantial part of their occupational skills and knowledge through the support of teachers, trainers and instructors in the domains of non‐academic technical vocational education and human resources development. (Grollmann, 2008, p. 535)

Therefore, whilst we recognise that VET teachers cannot compensate for global and national labour market conditions and the economy, their expertise and experiences are worthy of further analyses, particularly in the context of China, where other factors impact the status of VET. What is important is how policy is potentially shaping this area and any parallels to tertiary education around the world.

Recent Chinese VET policies

Chinese vocational education, and pragmatic approaches to education in general, should be explored in terms of culture, serving society, building character and morals, whilst considering the demands of, at times, rapid industrialization (Schmidtke & Chen, 2012). Over the last 30 years, the Chinese Government began to pay increased attention to vocational education and has boosted investment to support development and reforms, including a focus on the curricula and teachers (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Shi, 2013). The raft of policies and the repetition within them suggest progress has not been easy and that perceptions of VET are difficult to change. The Outline on Reform and Development of Education in China (1993) required all levels of Government to place high importance on VET (Tian, 2022, p. 222). This aimed to unite all sectors, including corporations and Government institutions, to provide VET in a variety of formats and levels, with this suggesting the strong desire to promote this area of Chinese education. In 2005, China implemented a policy that expanded the number of students who enrolled in vocational high schools which did yield success in terms of achieving a balance in general and vocational high school education numbers (Shi, 2013, p. 13). However, as Shi (2013, p. 14) notes, quantity did not necessarily equate to quality provision with graduates not leaving with work-needed competences and the curriculum lacked distinguishing features.

When considering recent Chinese VET policy, of significance, the 2014 Decision on Accelerating the Development of Modern Vocational Education was widely adopted to accelerate the development of modern professional education with strong support from the Government (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022; Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). This decision stated the policy and reform for the future direction of VET in China with a key aim to support employment (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). Further, the overall philosophy, goals, tasks, and actions for developing vocational education in coming years were outlined (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022; Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). It promoted innovation in VET and aimed to accelerate the construction of a modern, vocational educational system (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). Z. Zhao and Liu (2019, p. 501) note that the policy strove to move VET to a market-driven model rather than planned. Further, it stated this form of education should be driven by employment, therefore being flexible and independent. By 2020, the policy aimed to have deep integration of production and education, further integration of secondary vocational and higher vocational education, and a system embodying lifelong education with Chinese characteristics (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020, p. 745).

Despite this policy drive in 2014, challenges continued to remain for vocational education in China. These included low quality of academic study; a lack of teachers and appropriate teaching methods; an unresponsive curriculum to meet changing industry needs; limited ties to industry; continued imbalances of provision between rural and urban areas; and a continued perception of VET as a ‘low status’ option amongst parents and students (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022; L. Wang & Zhang, 2023). Vocational secondary schools continued to adopt lecture teaching approaches in classroom contexts, with little opportunity for students to practice what has been learnt, which suggests teaching methods need further reform (L. Wang & Zhang, 2023). These concerns warranted further policy initiatives, such as the National Vocational Education Reform Implementation Plan (also known as VET20), issued by the State Council in January 2019, which emphasized that general and vocational education should be of equal standing, albeit acknowledging their pedagogical differences (L. Wang & Zhang, 2023; F. Zhou et al., 2023). In September 2020, the Vocational Education Quality Improvement Action Plan (2020–2023) was released, which contained five broad goals and 56 key tasks to improve vocational education over the next three years (International Education, 2020; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2020; L. Wang & Zhang, 2023). What is noteworthy regarding the goals and tasks outlined is their previous introduction in previous policies, thus suggesting a lack of progress in their implementation. Two of the goals focused, again, on improved access to VET and aimed to raise its status ‘as both a legitimate and important educational pathway, as opposed to a contingency plan’ (International Education, 2020). The first of these goals considered vocational education’s scale to ensure its equivalence to general education. Whilst the second planned to lift the quality and the outcomes of participating students, raising the appeal and employability of those graduating, and improving the support to local economic and social development (International Education, 2020). Of note for secondary schools from these goals was the reemphasis on strengthening links with Chinese funded enterprises; overseas training plans and study visits for teachers; and encouraging foreign vocational schools to support and run schools in China (International Education, 2020).

The final task of the Vocational Education Quality Improvement Action Plan (2020–2023) was the restatement to revise and implement the Vocational Education Law, including its supporting policies and guidelines, which would formulate and implement local regulations for vocational education (International Education, 2020). This Law came into effect in 2020 and was revised in April 2022, in part due to VET’s continued poor social acceptance and to encourage foreign support in developing secondary vocational education (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2022). Thus, Article 3 of the revised law states that ‘vocational education is a type of education that has the same important status as general education’ (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2022). This would be driven forward by the Ministry of Education (MOE) and remove the distinction between the two secondary school types (general and vocational) with schools now to offer careers guidance for those studying vocational courses. Further articles within this Law encourage foreign exchanges and cooperation in the field of vocational education, and support the introduction of overseas high-quality resources to develop vocational education. The Law also stipulates that the state will encourage enterprises, institutions, social organizations, and individuals to donate funds for vocational education, and encourages overseas organizations and individuals to provide funding and donations for vocational education. The repetition from previous policies is clear to see and it would appear perceptions of Chinese VET are challenging to alter. The impact of these Government policies on teaching practices is now considered in greater depth.

Curriculum, teacher development and their influence on teaching practices

Historically, the vocational education courses in China were difficult and theoretical in orientation (Xu, 2011); practical elements were insufficient with students not given enough opportunity to develop their vocational competence (Xu, 2011). Businesses were unhappy as students did not have the requisite competencies required for their jobs (Xu, 2011).

As argued in the previous section, VET has developed rapidly over recent years, however there are several problems in the curriculum and teaching of the curriculum that persist (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019, p. 505). There is a lack of congruence between practical training which concentrates on skills and operational techniques within the workplace and the theoretical learning that takes place in the classroom. There appears to be, ‘ … a lack of learning and reflexivity in work processes’ (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019, p. 506). VET has been accused of ignoring the occupational requirements of its students for a combination of theoretical, professional and practical knowledge and skills, and, therefore, it has few features that make its curriculum distinctive (Shi, 2013). Furthermore, development goals are not seen as matched by the curriculum content and they do not reflect demand for services and production (Z. Zhou, 2008). Professional competence is seemingly not the main focus rather specific knowledge teaching takes precedence (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019).

Guo and Pilz’s 2020 study of three Chinese secondary VET schools offer some interesting insights on curriculum issues and how they shape teaching approaches. They found a lack of a unified curriculum, with schools in the same province potentially having different curriculum for the same occupational subject. However, they did suggest that the schools had the common objective of preparing their students for exams, with exam success being seen as a measure of teacher quality and student competence. Their research also highlighted the importance of preparing students for ‘skill competitions’, which take place at national, local, and school levels and influence a school’s reputation. Theoretical knowledge was championed within the curriculum as it could be tested and, as a result, teaching was didactic and focused on lecturing as a medium of instruction. They continue, ‘curriculum was examination-orientated, though an official curriculum did not exist’ (Guo & Pilz 2020, pp. 404–405). Conversely, learning foundations and the cognitive characteristics of vocational education students were not always considered by teachers, who have been shown to lack hands on practical experience of occupations (Zhang, 2012). This was because finding specialized teaching staff for this context can be difficult (Z. He, 2010). Therefore, many have argued that curriculum reform needs to be implemented where it matters; with the knowledge and skills necessary within a curriculum to support the development of a sustainable career (Shi, 2013). Still, questions raised about the adequacy of the vocational curriculum have also highlighted issues with the teaching and the teachers’ vocational expertise.

Teacher experience and motivation

Despite an improved level of academic degree holders, the competences and practical experience of VET teachers in China is variable, as many university graduates without work experience are recruited as teachers (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). This lack of vocational experience may shape teachers’ approaches to delivering the curriculum. Guo and Pilz’s (2020) study found that teaching within the vocational classrooms is teacher dominated, and that a greater allocation of time is spent on whole-classroom arrangements and less on group arrangements, which is often necessary for the development of core skills such as communication and teamwork. Chinese vocational schools provide limited opportunities for students to be involved in the process of knowledge construction, they were passive and spent most of their time listening to their teachers. They go on to suggest that teaching and learning in VET is still heavily influenced by Confucian scholars, with teachers following traditional or dialectic models. A learner-centred approach to learning is something, because of educational culture and the arrangements of teaching and learning in China, that is difficult to promote. Teachers of vocational education ‘ … appear to concentrate on transmission, reproduction understanding memorising testing of disciplinary knowledge’ (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019, p. 506). This is important as vocational teachers’ own perceptions and vocational identity can influence development (Li, 2017). Therefore, if students lack an appropriate amount of opportunity to develop practical and reflective skills, it can have a negative impact on their professional competence and subsequently teacher motivation. Students must rely on classroom teaching to acquire knowledge (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). The approaches to teaching commonly adopted by vocational teachers and the critiques offered in relation to their adequacy for delivering a vocational curriculum pose further questions about the system and practice of teaching training for vocational teachers in this context.

Teacher training and teaching in China

Although the number and quality of teachers has improved, due to an initial vocational education teacher training system being created and initiative such as the MoE’s ‘Gardener Project’ which included national level training, there are still challenges (Kuang, 2014). Formal Teacher education in China, it has been suggested, is still in the exploratory phase, with lessons being drawn from other countries (S. Gao, 2014, as cited in; Guo & Pilz, 2020; Shen, 2017). As a result of this, up to 80% of VET teachers did not gain pedagogy related knowledge until they began their roles as teachers of VET (Zhang, 2012) with pedagogical knowledge and skill being limited (Z. He, 2010; Kuang, 2014; Pilz & Li, 2012; Z. Q. Zhao et al., 2017). Kuang (2014, p. 43) proposes that: ‘these two characteristics [lack of teacher education and teacher skill] are common across China and result in an inherent deficiency amongst vocational teachers’. Chinese VET teachers ‘do not receive sufficient knowledge of teaching and learning and, as a result, they know little about other methods” (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020, p. 403). Therefore, a capacity gap exists amongst vocational teachers because they are either not willing to undertake training, their workload is too heavy, or they lack support from their institution, with no opportunity to address these deficiencies (Kuang, 2014).

The gap in teacher training in China has been acknowledged and addressed by policy makers in China. In service teachers have over recent decades had the opportunity to participate in on-the-job training. For example, a 2006 improvement plan for teachers in upper secondary VET schools proposed that by 2020, 150,000 professional teachers would be trained to enhance their pedagogy related knowledge (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2006). Yet, evidence of the impact on the quality of vocational education’s curriculum and teaching is sparse.

Methodology

A qualitative, case study approach was undertaken in this study as it allowed us to consider issues and themes in a focused manner (Eisenhardt, 1989; Gray, 2014). Case studies can provide ‘exemplary knowledge’, that is ‘a particular representation given in context and understood in that context’ (Thomas, 2011, p. 31). The case unit of analysis was a group of three Chinese animation lecturers who teach at a vocational secondary school in southern China. We wanted to better understand their thoughts and opinions on impending curriculum development initiatives; what teacher training would be needed for new internationalised curriculum to be effectively delivered, and how this could impact on the status of secondary vocational education in China. A case study approach enabled us to perform a ‘deep dive’ into the specific experiences of vocational teachers in relation to challenges facing VET development and reform, nationally and globally, which provides insights that contribute to understanding the future of this particular tertiary system. Individual cases can reveal a lot about the educational experiences involved in tertiary change that are applicable in other VET contexts: ‘a particular case that is well constructed ceases to be particular’ (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992, p. 77). Semi-structured interviews were adopted to elicit the data from the participants and explore their perceptions of VET policies and teacher practices in this context. Although bias can occur when using a case study approach, particularly if contradictory information is glossed over by researchers, we tried to overcome this by using key literature and the verbatim testimony of the Chinese vocational teachers (Vennesson, 2008).

Table 1 outlines key information about the participants.

Table 1. Participant information.

Participant number	Gender	Highest qualification	Occupation	Field of expertise	Teaching experience
1	Male	First degree	Vocational secondary school teacher	Animation	5 years plus
2	Male	First degree	Vocational secondary school teacher	Animation	5 years plus
3	Male	First degree	Vocational secondary school teacher	Animation	5 years plus

Ethical considerations

Throughout this study participants were treated with respect, dignity and sensitivity, their anonymity was assured and what they divulged treated confidentially (British Ethical Research Association, 2018). Participants were aware that, at any time, they could withdraw from the research, and they would remain anonymous throughout the study and in any subsequent publications - this was conveyed to them at the outset of their interview and confirmed in writing. When reporting viewpoints and opinions, each participant was allocated a number and data was stored in accordance with UK General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (British Ethical Research Association, 2018).

Analysis

A thematic approach was followed as it allowed us to identify, analyze, and report themes that emerged from the data. The research drew on both inductive and deductive approaches to analysis, this was an iterative process as we moved regularly between the literature, Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital (see Theoretical Framework section), and our data (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 88), which allowed us to investigate key variables and relationships (Gray, 2014).

Bourdieu’s (1986) notion of cultural capital informed the analysis as we identified where ‘vocational pedagogical capital’ as a specific form of cultural capital necessary in the field of vocational education could be seen in its embodied, objectified, or institutionalised state. We further considered how this shaped Chinese VET teachers’ perspectives on the impact of recent Government policy, particularly in relation to curriculum and teacher development, and its potential effectiveness into the future.

Data analysis followed the phases below:

• Phase 1: familiarizing yourself with the data

• Phase 2: generating initial codes

• Phase 3: searching for themes

• Phase 4: reviewing the themes

• Phase 5: defining and naming the themes and writing up the findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

The initial ideas were arrived at by working through Phases 1 and 2 of the thematic analysis. This led to the following initial codes (being positive and hopeful about the future, increasing the quality of VET, helping students, cooperation with industry, student-centered learning, curriculum development and teacher training). The emergent candidate themes that developed in Phase 3 were: (i) helping students to further develop; (ii) cooperation between vocational schools, enterprises and industries; (iii) curriculum development; and (iv) teacher training. Once candidate themes had been reviewed (Phase 4) we arrived at the following final overarching themes after working through Phase 5:

• Positive Perspectives on the impact of Government Policy and Vocational Practice

• Enhancing the status of vocational education through an international curriculum

• The importance of teacher education in the development of vocational Pedagogical Capital.

Theoretical framework

The research was concerned with lecturers’ viewpoints on the latest vocational reforms, paying particular attention to curriculum and teacher development and the potential impact this could have on their perceptions of their practices. Of particular interest was what it was about their experiences as lecturers within the broad field of education, and the specific field of vocational education, that shaped these views. We viewed lecturers’ perceptions as entangled with their experiences within this field and sub-field, particularly in relation to their positions within it. Therefore, we considered Bourdieu’s (1986) notions of cultural capital, and a specific form relating to the field of vocational education, vocational pedagogical capital, to be in insightful to the analysis. Within this article cultural capital, of which vocational pedagogical capital is a type, is viewed as a set of cultural assets including skills and attributes that have value within a society (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu suggests that cultural capital can improve an individual’s position and socio-economic status over time. In The Forms of Capital (Bourdieu, 1986), he outlines how cultural capital can exist in three forms. Firstly, it can exist in an embodied state, in the form of long-lasting dispositions of the body and mind. The acquisition of this type of cultural capital requires self-improvement and to work on oneself. It is influenced by the knowledge that, through socialisation and education, is acquired over time. In its embodied form, the acquisition of cultural capital begins in early childhood and it requires pedagogical action as well as the investment of time by parents, family members and other professionals (Reay, 2004).

Examples include knowledge accumulated over time, different attitudes, new skills and attributes developed both consciously and unconsciously. Secondly, it can be in an objectified state and take the form of cultural goods such as books, instruments, and artefacts, which can be appropriated both materially and symbolically, and which can signify an individual’s economic class. Finally, institutionalised cultural capital takes the form of objectified academic qualifications that confers a kind of cultural competence on the holder. Degrees and other academic qualifications are pertinent examples. Vocational Pedagogical Capital also appears to exist in these three states which can be seen in the findings presented next.

Findings and discussion

The following themes present the lecturers’ perceptions about vocational education at the case school in Southern China. The quotations chosen for the findings section were used to demonstrate the participants’ viewpoints in terms of the themes that emerged from the data and how the absence or presence of vocational pedagogical capital can be used to make sense of them within the wider field of tertiary education in China.

Positive perspectives on the impact of government policy and vocational practice

All three participants highlighted the speed of VET development over the last 5 years, particularly the positive influence on student quality. The thoughts of participants 1 and 2 illustrate this well:

Before 10 years ago vocational education is not important in Chinese education system. Nobody wants their child to go to learn vocational education. We are a secondary vocational school, the quantity of our students before 10 years is not good. (participant 1)

China’s vocational education has developed rapidly over the last two decades, especially in the last five years, with strong support from the state, vocational education has become an important educational unit. (participant 2)

Yet, as Shi (2013, p. 14) notes, the quantity of VET students has not led to enhanced quality of curriculum and teaching. These positive perceptions in relation to the changing status of vocational education without evidence demonstrate the influence of embodied cultural capital in terms of the persistent and long-standing dispositions they held towards the value of vocational education (increasing VET participation improves its status in the field of general education) which arguably shapes their views on the effectiveness of policy initiatives. This is evident in the commonly held belief that policy reform has the potential to improve the status of VET and promote, ‘positive social sentiments and attitudes towards vocational education and skilled workers … ’ (G. Wang, 2022, p. 11).

Participant 3 was positive about the future of vocational education and suggested that it will be important to China as ‘ … employment was the first goal of Chinese education’, which was a key aim of recent Government policies. Given the proposed internationalized curriculum and cooperation, there was an expectation described that vocational education would become more popular and that this would lead to enhanced student quality. The suggestion was that a new internationalized curriculum, with a learner-centered approach to teaching, would be viewed positively and prove attractive to prospective students. The hope was that this would lead to ‘ … a better quality of student’ (participant 3) and raise its status ‘as both a legitimate and important educational pathway, as opposed to a contingency plan’ (International Education, 2020). The participants’ emphasis on developments in the curriculum and teaching to enhance the ‘quality of student’, rather than quality of education overall, highlights the importance of these long-standing dispositions towards vocational education (the belief that the low status of VET is characterized by its students) associated with vocational pedagogical capital in its embodied state to how the impact of policy on vocational practice is perceived, and perhaps reveals ‘a lack of learning and reflexivity in work processes’ (Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019, p. 506).

Participant 1 was particularly enthusiastic about the call for vocational education in China to diversify and internationalize the curriculum as this would give teachers the opportunity to adopt new educational models and develop their syllabi taking account of differing pedagogical approaches. They suggested that this would help students to develop and enable them to ‘ … improve students’ cross-cultural communication and innovation ability’. The suggestion was that an internationalized curriculum would both encourage students to the school and would enable them to further develop whilst studying at South China Vocational School (pseudonym). The importance placed on the internationalization of the curriculum and adopting different pedagogical approaches demonstrates the participants acknowledged an absence of vocational pedagogical capital amongst vocational teachers in its objectified state. Further, that this form of capital could be accumulated through engagement with fields of vocational pedagogy internationally.

Similarly, extensive cooperation between vocational schools and enterprises was also viewed positively in enabling teachers to accumulate specific vocational pedagogical capital that would enable them to be more applied in their teaching techniques. It was hoped that this would lead to an improvement in problems associated with current vocational pedagogy whereby practical elements have been criticized as being insufficient with students not given enough opportunity to develop their vocational competence (Xu, 2011). For example, practical teaching was emphasized – it was expected that this would enhance students’ practical abilities and that the employment competitiveness of companies employing graduates would be improved. Participant 3 believed that vocational education in the future will:

… pay more attention to innovation and entrepreneurship education, cultivate students’ innovative spirit and entrepreneurial ability, and make contributions to the cultivation of innovative talents.

It appears encouraging that the teachers felt the recent changes to VET in China would improve employment and foster links between schools and enterprises as Government policy (the most recent being the Vocational Education Quality Improvement Action Plan), had aimed to achieve, but it was clear that this was more hopeful for the future rather than impacts already being made. Enhancing student quality, potentially being influenced by internationalizing the curriculum and adopting alternative pedagogical approaches, would appear to influence VET’s status.

When asked about the status of vocational education in China and how this might be influenced by recent policy and developments, all the participants suggested that vocational education in China had ‘ … undergone a positive transformation … ’ (participant 2). Although all participants were quick to point out that vocational education was constantly changing and needed to adjust, they outlined several trends deemed positive that would increase its status. Participant 1 suggested that more attention should be paid to digital and personalized teaching methods, and that this would help them to be more student-centered. Further, it would allow teachers to meet their personalized needs and to help them to deal with job market changes. This highlights the relationship between the rapid policy developments in Chinese vocational education (Tian, 2022) and the ability to accumulate appropriate vocational pedagogical capital to support these developments effectively.

Despite positive developments in the status and practice of vocational education teaching, a lack of cultural capital, specifically vocational pedagogical cultural capital, meant that these developments have not been fully realized. Government interventions are yet to create the conditions for this capital to be developed amongst vocational teachers. In its embodied state, long-held views of the low value and status of vocational education persist. This is evident in our participants’ views of ‘the quality of student’, the importance of the curriculum being internationalized, and the idea that strong links to the labour market would make VET more attractive to prospective parents and students. Whilst our participants are encouraged that these developments would lead to an increased status for VET, their responses still reflected long-standing dispositions and attitudes towards VET and its parity with other forms of education. Interestingly, the importance placed on internationalizing the curriculum for the purpose of teacher development and developing vocational pedagogy suggests that this gap in vocational pedagogical capital is known amongst our participants.

Enhancing the status of vocational education through an international curriculum

The participants continued to talk about the opportunity to create a new type of international vocational school, as suggested by the Vocational Education Quality Improvement Action Plan (2020–2023), with distinctive characteristics that would help it become a regional benchmark. All three participants were clear about the need to introduce and integrate an internationalized, high quality, vocational curriculum as this would ensure that students had more opportunities to develop their career or study opportunities. Participant 2 believed that:

…the new international curriculum will certainly guide us to use appropriate teaching methods, especially different assessment methods, so that students can learn more details and evaluate more comprehensively and accurately.

It was also suggested that an internationalized curriculum would give specific courses a positive identity, which would have a positive influence on parents’ attitudes to vocational education, while helping student employability (participant 1). However, the participants appeared over reliant on policy initiatives in regard to their practices, which can protract change. This is potentially exacerbated by the time needed to draw on international vocational teaching expertise. Their apprehension to make change without clear policy direction could be understood as a lack of specific cultural capital, or indeed vocational pedagogical capital, in relation to teaching and pedagogy whilst responding to local and national conditions. Hence, there are tensions related to how Government interventions are yet to create the conditions for this capital to be developed amongst vocational teachers for the enhancement of their practice.

Participants had not had any experience with an internationalized curriculum because ‘the internationalization of vocational education in secondary school in China is a relatively new thing’ (participant 2). Although it was difficult for the participants to fully comprehend the impact of a new internationalized curriculum, and to consider how this might influence teachers, students and the status of vocational education, they were hopeful. Participant 1 referred to a visit undertaken to a private international school in China that taught a BTEC curriculum (BTECs are a UK vocational qualification developed though teacher and employer collaborations). Having reflected on his experience and using this curriculum as a reference point, he suggested that a new internationalized curriculum would:

… adhere to a student-centered approach to education with a flexible, application-oriented knowledge structure. Emphasis is placed on developing practical, interpersonal, and thinking skills that students will need in their future jobs.

Participant 2 was clear that this kind of approach would have a positive impact and demonstrates a gap in vocational pedagogical capital regarding teaching techniques and approaches suitable for learning applied knowledge. He pointed to the importance of the curriculum offered and the need for applied learning that combines knowledge with practice and technical skills. He felt it was essential that his students were given the opportunity to perform vocational tasks that would enable them to develop appropriate professional behaviors and the transferable skills deemed of particular importance in the workplace, which previous literatures had noted as lacking (Shi, 2013; Xu, 2011). Overall, the participants felt that an internationalized curriculum would lead to better educated students, and this would enhance the status of vocational education.

If the South China Vocational School were to meet and cultivate the diversified development needs of students, an international vision was needed and this required ‘international communication skills, scientific thinking and a solid professional foundation in the new era’ (participant1). For this to become a reality, participant 1 believed that a training plan that developed technical talents and enhanced students’ skill sets was required to help them to graduate successfully. The hope was that this would give them an advantage over ordinary high school students when applying to high-quality foreign universities. It was clear to participant 1 that if the status of vocational education were to be improved, it would become more attractive to both parents and students, particularly if there was a more direct route to employment, promotion or international study. Vocational education’s low status in China has been argued to be a key problem (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022; L. Wang & Zhang, 2023), with participant 1 suggesting that this issue remains.

To enhance vocational education, the design and development of an internationalized curriculum was viewed as paramount. All three participants argued that vocational curricula should have recognition from industry partners, organizations and academic partners, such as universities. Students needed the skills that an internationalized curriculum would provide to help students to find a job or undertake further study at a university, providing the integration of vocational and higher education systems that policy makers have sought to achieve (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020). Participants were clear that internationally recognized courses, partnership with overseas universities, and well-designed courses would enhance the status in the eyes of parents and employers.

All participants noted that in the next five years, the status of vocational education in China would improve, with parents and families recognizing the value of vocational education as result. This was specifically attributed to the Chinese Government commitment to equity and equivalency between vocational and academic qualifications (for example, the National Vocational Education Reform Implementation Plan), with students who follow a vocational route being given the opportunity to follow an academic path in the future, highlighting the importance of policy reform focused on integrating VET and HE within the Chinese tertiary system (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020). Again, this view made it clear the participants were hopeful that things would change in the future, but they did not outline significant VET policy impact on their practices to date.

It can be seen in our analysis so far, participants’ views on the impact of Government policy on vocational teachers’ practice is considered positive, with the development of objectified vocational pedagogical capital seen through engagement with the international vocational teaching community and, more locally, industry in China. However, little attention has been given to the role of formal teacher training amongst participants in their views of how their vocational pedagogical capital could be accumulated, we turn to this now.

The importance of teacher education in the development of vocational pedagogical capital

Participants were asked to think about what current teachers should have in terms of qualifications and experience before they could teach in a vocational school. Teachers at South China Vocational Secondary School were expected to have a diploma in their major (nursing, animation, information technology, early years, for example). They should also have a teacher certification from a Normal University, having passed the National Teacher Qualification examination. There were also on-the-job training courses which considered school rules, systems and procedures. Once qualified, there were yearly training opportunities with teachers having to attend one political, practical or pedagogical course. However, the participants argued that they needed additional pedagogical training, a key issue identified in previous research literature (Billett et al., 2020; L. Wang & Zhang, 2023; Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). There is an acknowledgement of the absence of pedagogy related knowledge and skill (Zhang, 2012) being limited in spite of qualification requirements for vocational teachers (Z. He, 2010; Kuang, 2014; Pilz & Li, 2012; Z. Q. Zhao et al., 2017). It was suggested by participant 3 that there was a need to improve teacher quality and for this to happen there was a need to:

…learn and absorb advanced educational concepts and teaching methods, improve teachers’ educational concepts and teaching levels, and improve the overall teaching quality of the school.

With participant 2 noting that there was a need for teacher development because:

… our use of teaching methods is still limited, and we hope to obtain more international teaching methods, so that both teachers and students can have a good experience, teaching and when being taught.

The participants demonstrate here how despite institutionalized vocational capital in the form of teacher training being compulsory, its scope and specificity to the demands of teaching vocational subjects did not equip them with the tools nor confidence to develop their practice. It did not appear to provide them with the same level or status of institutionalized cultural capital as their peers in other education sectors. They described that their qualifications did not prepare them sufficiently for the work they would need to do as a vocational teacher, such as, curriculum design, assessment and to develop appropriate teaching materials. For example, syllabi in many subject areas, according to participant 1, were generally designed by the MoE, with teachers being required to design course materials themselves. Therefore, the participants suggested that Chinese vocational school teachers would need additional training in the following areas: curriculum and syllabus design; teaching methodologies; teaching material development; professional research for teaching materials; and assessment design, thus in agreement with previous criticisms of vocational education curricula and teaching (Schmidtke & Chen, 2012; Z. Zhao & Liu, 2019). Specifically, teachers would need training to enable them to interpret the new curricular and be given the opportunity to analyze specific course content and associated teaching plans. They expected: ‘demonstration of the teaching content and demonstration classes…and most importantly teaching methods training’ (participant 2). They stated that training from the curriculum developers would better enable them to enhance their understanding and aid their delivery.

Strong emphasis was placed on learner-centred, practical and knowledge-application based learning that can be seen in other nations, yet until the curriculum was developed in this way, our participants did not have the vocational pedagogical capital to enact the vocational learner-centred pedagogies they wished to offer. Despite the issues highlighted, their views focused on the potential benefits the policy reforms could offer but suggested limited change had been experienced to date. This could have been due, however, to some reluctance to criticize Government policy with a preference to focus on the opportunities the changes could offer in the short and medium term. They were in broad agreement of the potential that change could offer, particularly around improving the quality of VET students; the benefits of internationalizing the curriculum; the introduction of Western pedagogical approaches; the impact on VET’s status to parents and students; improvements in school-industry links; improved employability potential; and improved teacher training to help deliver the findings raised.

Conclusion

Throughout this century, VET has been given increased prominence and priority by the Chinese Government to produce a skilled, well-trained workforce to meet the country’s advancing and rapidly changing needs. Yet, the broad range of policies introduced over this period appeared indicative of the limited success that they had potentially achieved (Z. Gao & Yu, 2020; Tian, 2022). Therefore, this article’s purpose was to provide a critical examination of Chinese VET generally, but specifically within a vocational secondary school context within this shifting policy landscape which seeks to integrate secondary vocational and higher vocational education to move towards a tertiary system embodying lifelong education with Chinese characteristics. From a review of pertinent literatures and a deep dive into the experiences of vocational lecturers’ experiences, the following issues appear to remain a concern: low quality of academic study; limited appropriate teacher training; a lack of teachers and appropriate teaching methods; teacher motivation issues; an unresponsive curriculum to meet changing industry needs; limited ties to industry; continued imbalances of provision between rural and urban areas; and a continued perception of VET as a low status option amongst parents and students.

The use of the concept ‘vocational pedagogical capital’ has provided insights into the complexities of vocational lecturers’ in navigating a shifting policy landscape and the areas of concern outlined above. It has highlighted the insufficiency of technical approaches to teacher development to address these issues that emerge from structural conditions and are characterized by long-standing views of the esteem of VET. Instead, the development of vocational pedagogical capital, which would equip teachers with not only pedagogical expertise but the capacity to keep on top of the challenges created by developments in VET (Schmidtke & Chen, 2012; Tian, 2022), would allow for advancements to be made. Therefore, despite the participants’ positive views regarding VET’s future potential within the broader tertiary system, the findings from this study suggest there is some way to go before the vision for Chinese vocational secondary school education is realized.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).