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Acknowledgements
We acknowledge both the support and guidance of Professor John Dixon Hunt and the generosity and goodwill of the contributors. Without the support of LaTrobe University for a symposium on garden history, this volume would not be possible. James also acknowledges the Public History Unit, University of Waikato, for giving him teaching buyout to work on this project. A University of Waikato Small Research Grant enabled the employment of a Research Assistant, Joanna Bishop, to help with the preparation of manuscripts.
University of Waikato
La Trobe University
Notes
1. Gardens: An Essay on the Human Condition (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2008), p. 114.
2. Eric Rolls, ‘More a New Planet than a New Continent’, in Stephen Dovers (ed.), Australian Environmental History: Essays and Cases (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 22.
3. Sydney Parkinson, 27 April 1770, in Stanfield Parkinson (ed.), Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour... (London: Printed for Stanfield Parkinson, 1773), p. 178.
4. On Banks' life, see John Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, The British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolutions (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
5. Joseph Banks, 28 April 1770, in J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771, Vol. 2 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1962), p. 53.
6. Banks, 26 August 1770, in Endeavour Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 112–113; second quote, 1770, cited in William J. Lines, Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia (Athens and London: The University of Georgia Press, reprint, 1999), p. 23.
7. C. M. H. Clark, A History of Australia: From the Earliest Times to the Age of Macquarie, Vol. 1 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1985), p. 62.
8. On this period, see especially: Gascoigne, The Enlightenment and the Origins of European Australia (Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 86–99; James Broadbent, Suzanne Rickard, and Margaret Steven (eds), India, China, Australia: Trade and Society, 1788–1850 (no place: Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales, 2003).
9. Banks, March 1770, in Endeavour Journal, Vol. 2, p. 4.
10. Geoff Park, Theatre Country: Essays on Landscape and Whenua (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2006).
11. Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People (London: Secker & Warburg, reprint, 1996), pp. 344–406; Lines, Taming the Great South Land, pp. 15–26.
12. On which, see Park, Theatre Country, pp. 179–194; Park, Ngā Uruora, pp. 18–74; Vaughan Wood, ‘Appraising Soil Fertility in Early Colonial New Zealand: The “Biometric Fallacy” and Beyond’, Environment and History, ix/4, 2003, pp. 393–405.
13. Landscape and Memory (London: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 61.
14. ‘Approaches (New and Old) to Garden History’, in Michel Conan (ed.), Perspectives on Garden Histories (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1999), p. 88.
15. Date unknown, quoted in P. F. Perreten, ‘Boswell’s Response to the European Landscape', in Irma S. Lustig (ed.), Boswell: Citizen of the World, Man of Letters (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), p. 37.
16. Ajay Skaria, Hybrid Histories: Forests, Frontiers and Wildness in Western India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001); W. J. T. Mitchell, ‘Imperial Landscape’, in Mitchell (ed.), Landscape and Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 5–30; Michael R. Dove, ‘“Jungle” in Nature and Culture’, in Ramachandra Guha (ed.), Social Ecology (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 90–115; and, note the classic text: D. W. Meinig (ed.), The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes: Geographical Essays (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).
17. Rhys Jones, ‘Fire stick farming’, Australian Natural History, xvi, September 1969, pp. 224–228; Harry Laurandos, Continent of Hunter Gatherers. New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Flannery, The Future Eaters.
18. Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
19. Warwick Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia (Carlton South: Melbourne University Press, 2002), p. 20.
20. Beatrice Bligh Cherish the Earth: The Story of Gardening in Australia (Sydney: Ure Smith in association with The National Trust of Australia [New South Wales], 1973); Victor Crittenden, The Front Garden: The Story of the Cottage Garden in Australia (Canberra: Mulini Press, 1979); Crittenden, A History of Australian Gardening Books and a Bibliography, 1806–1950 (Canberra: Canberra College of Advanced Education Library, 1986); Howard Tanner, The Great Gardens of Australia (South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1976); Peter Cuffley, Cottage Gardens in Australia (Canterbury, Victoria: Five Mile Press, 1983).
21. The society also produces an occasional journal, Studies in Australian Garden History, which has a more academic focus.
22. In addition to a number of the above, see, Valerie McKenzie, The Scent of Gum Leaves: Early Australian Gardens (Chatswood, New South Wales: Centennial Publications, 1986); Trevor Nottle, Old Fashioned Gardens (Kenthurst, New South Wales: Kangaroo Press, 1992); Judith Baskin with Trisha Dixon, Australia's Timeless Gardens (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1996); Katie Holmes. Susan Martin, and Kylie Mirmohamadi (eds), Green Pens: A Collection of Garden Writing (Carlton: Meigunyah Press, 2004); Holly Kerr Forsyth, Remembered Gardens: Eight Women and their Visions of an Australian Landscape (Carlton: Meigunyah Press, 2006); Colleen Morris, Lost Gardens of Sydney (Sydney: Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales, 2008); Rebecca Jones, Green Harvest: A History of Organic Farming and Gardening in Australia (Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO publishing, 2010).
23. The garden designer about whom most has been written, and around whom there has developed a veritable publishing industry, is Edna Walling. Peter Watts was amongst the first to write on Walling, in The Gardens of Edna Walling (Melbourne: National Trust of Australia [Victoria], Women's Committee, 1981); more recent work includes: Sarah Hardy, The Unusual Life of Edna Walling (Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin, 2005). Other work on individual garden designers includes: Helen Proudfoot, Gardens in Bloom: Jocelyn Brown and her Sydney Gardens of the ‘30s and ’40s (Kenthurst, New South Wales: Kangaroo Press, 1989), and Paul Fox, Clearings: Six Colonial Gardeners (Carlton, Victoria: Meigunyah Press, 2004). From the discipline of Landscape Architecture, Christopher Vernon's work on Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahoney Griffin has been important in recognizing the significance of these two designers in Australian garden history. Note, for instance, Vernon, ‘The Landscape Art of Walter Burley Griffin’, in Annie Watson (ed.), Beyond Architecture: Marion Mahony and Walter Burley Griffin: America, Australia, India (Haymarket, New South Wales: Powerhouse Publishing, 1998), pp. 86–103.
24. Andrea Gaynor, Harvest of the Suburbs: An Environmental History of Growing Food in Australian Suburbs (Crawley, Western Australia: University of Western Australia Press, 2006); Peter Timms, Australia's Quatre Acre: The Story of the Ordinary Suburban Garden (Carlton, Victoria: Meigunyah, 2006); Katie Holmes, Susan Martin, and Kylie Mirmohamadi, Reading the Garden: The Settlement of Australia (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2008).
25. Georgina Whitehead, Civilising the City: A History of Melbourne's Public Gardens (Melbourne: State Library of Victoria, 1997); Georgina Whitehead (ed.), Planting the Nation (Melbourne: Australian Garden History Society, 2001).
26. Richard Aitken and Michael Looker (eds), The Oxford Companion to Australian Gardens (South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2002).
27. Aitken, Gardenesque: A Celebration of Australian Gardening (Carlton: Miegunyah Press in association with State Library of Victoria, 2004); Aitken, The Garden of Ideas: Four Centuries of Australian Style (Carlton: Miegunyah Press, 2010).
28. George Seddon was a prolific writer. Amongst his more recent work, two books stand out: Landprints: Reflections on Place and Landscape (Cambridge, Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press, 1997), and The Old Country: Australian Landscapes, Plants and People (Cambridge, Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
29. See Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London, Boston: Faber & Faber, 1987).
30. See, Tim Bonyhady and Tom Griffiths (eds), Words for Country: Landscape and Language in Australia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2002); Jay Arthur, Default Country: A Lexical Cartography of Twentieth-century Australia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2003).
31. Kay Schaffer, Women and the Bush: Forces of Desire in the Australian Cultural Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Judith Ryan and Chris Wallace-Crabbe (eds), Imagining Australia: Literature and Culture in the New World (Cambridge, MA: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard University Committee on Australian Studies, 2004); Jeanette Horne, Australian Pastoral: The Making of a White Landscape (Fremantle, Western Australia: Fremantle Press, 2002).
32. The European impact on the Australian landscape has been discussed from a variety of perspectives and intersects with environmental history approaches. For some early examples see: Eric Rolls, A Million Wild Acres: 200 Years of Man and an Australian Forest (West Melbourne, Victoria: Nelson, 1981); Geoffrey Bolton, Spoils and Spoilers (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1981); William Lines, Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991).
33. One might note, on Māori garden practices: Helen Leach, 1,000 Years of Gardening in New Zealand (Wellington: Reed, 1984); Louise Furey, Māori Gardening: An Archaeological Perspective (Wellington: Science & Technical Pub., Dept. of Conservation, 2006).
34. On its earlier history, note: G. M. Thomson, The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922); A. H. Clark's The Invasion of New Zealand by People, Plants and Animals: The South Island (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1949); Paul Shepard, English Reaction to the NZ Landscape Before 1850, Pacific Viewpoint Monograph No. 4 (Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington Department of Geography, 1969); A. Grey, Aotearoa and New Zealand: A Historical Geography (Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1994); David Young, Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2004); Eric Pawson and Tom Brooking (eds), Environmental Histories of New Zealand (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2002).
35. Geoff Park, Ngā Uruora. The Groves of Life: Ecology and History in a New Zealand Landscape (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1995).
36. Park, Theatre Country.
37. Tony Ballantyne and Judith A. Bennett (eds), Landscape/Community: Perspectives from New Zealand History (Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2005).
38. Janet Stephenson, Mick Abbott, and Jacinta Ruru (eds), Beyond the Scene: Landscape and Identity in Aotearoa New Zealand (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2010); Richard Reeve and Mick Abbott (eds), The Future of Wilderness in Aotearoa New Zealand (Nelson: Craig Potton Publishing, forthcoming).
39. John Dixon Hunt, ‘Approaches (New and Old) to Garden History’, in Michel Conan (ed.), Perspectives on Garden Histories (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1999), pp. 77–90 (quotes, pp. 81–82). On the problem of garden history in New Zealand, see James Beattie, ‘On Gardens and Garden History’, New Zealand Books, xx/4, Summer 2010, forthcoming and ‘Greener Pastures? Future Research Topics on New Zealand's Environment’, ENNZ: Environment and Nature in New Zealand, i/2, August 2006, pp. 8–13.
40. One can here cite the recent, and beautifully produced, but nevertheless deeply problematic: Bee Dawson, A History of Gardening in New Zealand (Auckland: Random House, 2010) and the earlier: Paul Tritenbach, Botanic Gardens and Parks in New Zealand: An Illustrated Record (Auckland: Excellence Press, 1987); Winsome Shepherd, Wellington's Heritage: Plants, Gardens and Landscape (Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2000).
41. Thelma Strongman, The Gardens of Canterbury: A History (Wellington: Reed, 1984); Matthew Bradbury (ed.), A History of the Garden in New Zealand (Auckland: Viking, 1995); Rupert Tipples, Colonial Landscape Gardener: Alfred Buxton of Christchurch, New Zealand 1872–1950 (Lincoln: Lincoln College, 1989); Louise Shaw, Southern Gardening: A History of the Dunedin Horticultural Society (Dunedin: The Dunedin Horticultural Society Inc., 2000); Matt Morris, ‘A Celestial Place: Hill Gardening in a Colonial Garden City’, Thesis Eleven, 92/1, February 2008, pp. 69–86; James Beattie, Jasper Heinzen, and John P. Adam, ‘Japanese Gardens in New Zealand, 1850–1950: Transculturation and Transmission’, Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, 28/2 (April–June, 2008), pp. 219–236; Beattie, ‘Colonial Geographies of Settlement: Vegetation, Towns, Disease and Wellbeing in Aotearoa/New Zealand, 1830s–1930s’, Environment and History, 14/4 (November, 2008), pp. 583–610; On botanic gardens, note: Winsome Shepherd and Walter Cook, The Botanic Garden Wellington: A New Zealand History, 1840–1987 (Wellington: Millwood Press, 1988).
42. Beattie (ed.), 蘭園 Lan Yuan — The Garden of Enlightenment: Essays on the Intellectual, Cultural, and Architectural Background to the Dunedin Chinese Gardens (Hamilton: New Zealand Asian Studies Society; Dunedin Chinese Gardens Trust, 2008). See also Beattie, ‘Growing Chinese Influences in New Zealand: Chinese Gardens, Identity and Meaning’, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, ix/1, June, 2007, pp. 38–60.
43. This is available free to download and contains both peer- and non-peer-reviewed articles, http://fennerschool-associated.anu.edu.au/environhist/newzealand/journal/.
44. HIST511: Gardens, Environments and People.