Constructing inherent styles: art history and Galician nationalism in the works of Alfonso Castelao

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses the works of Alfonso Daniel Manuel Rodríguez Castelao (d. 1950) from the lens of art historiography, to show how Galician art historical contributions from the beginning of the twentieth century connected art and artistic styles from the past with identity significations. My discussion is mainly based on the discourse analysis of Sempre en Galiza (1944) and As cruces de pedra na Galiza (1950), along with mentions to other texts such as Alba de Groria (1948) or several essays from Revista Nós. The examination of these texts is complemented with the study of Castelao’s visual production. Two main arguments are extracted from Castelao’s approach to the history of Galician art: the Celtic ethnic foundation of Galicia and the establishment of two national styles, Romanesque and Baroque, which are seen as intrinsic to this territory.

KEYWORDS:

• Galicia
• nationalism
• national identity
• historiography
• Castelao

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to the Museo de Pontevedra, for having provided me with some of the images that are included in this article, and for having granted me permission to publish them. I also want to thank Santiago Rodríguez Caramés, for his inputs on regionalist architecture. I would also like to show my gratitude to my two anonymous reviewers for their insights and suggestions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 A thorough examination of the concepts of nationalism or national identies is beyond the scope of this paper. I refer to: Anderson, 1983/1991; Beramendi et al., 1994; Gellner, 1983; Hobsbawm & Ranger, 1983; Hobsbawm, 1990; Smith, 1991; Özkirimli, 2000.

2 For an example of how the political background of authors influences the study of the past, see Boyle, 2013.

3 For previous approaches to this subject: Villares, 2011, 2015.

4 Castelao’s work was declared Bien de Interés Cultural (BIC) in 2011 by the Regional Government of Galicia. This category implies the highest degree of protection that can be given to heritage in Spain since 1985. See, https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2012/03/19/pdfs/BOE-A-2012-3894.pdf

5 To give an example, the Dama de Elche (fifth-sixth century BCE) was presented after its discovery in 1897 as a materialisation of national culture and Spain’s glorious past (Gutiérrez Lloret, 2017; Ruiz & Rouillard, 2006).

6 In the case of classical antiquity, not only Greece identified itself as the heir to this past and heritage, but it also came to be seen as the past of other European nations, with revivals of the classical era taking place during the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries (Fögen & Warren, 2016; Hamilakis, 2007).

7 The Middle Ages were the historical period favoured by romantic thinkers. For instance, the works of Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, John Ruskin, or Augustus Pugin fundamentally focused on Gothic art. In addition, during the end of the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, the ‘medieval revival’ took place, especially in the areas of architecture and metalwork (Addison, 1938).

8 In Spain, this exploration of the medieval and early modern periods led to the appropriation and promotion of what some art historians have called Mudejar, Plateresque and Hispano-Flemish as national styles (Ortiz Pradas, 2010).

9 Translated by the author from the quotation in Spanish in Tobia, 1994, pp. 706–707.

10 The regionalist movement in Galicia began with the publication in 1886 of El Regionalismo Gallego by Manuel Murguía. Three years later, in 1889, the Asociación Rexionalista Galega was founded, and Alfredo Brañas’s work, El regionalismo. Estudio sociológico, histórico y literario, was released, becoming a reference work for Galician regionalism and nationalism (Barreiro Fernández, 1982; Máiz, 1984b; Núñez Seixas & Iglesias Amorín, 2020 Viejo Viñas, 2002).

11 Partido Galeguista was a Galician nationalist political party founded in 1931, which held significant importance during the Spanish Second Republic (1931–1939). The party was practically disintegrated after the military uprising of 1936, which led to the repression of party members and their exile during the Spanish dictatorship (1939–1975) (Quintana Garrido, 2002).

12 The approaches to different artistic movements that Castelao published in the journal Nós are also particularly interesting (e.g. issues 11 and 12). He also approaches artistic issues in the publication of parts of his diaries from when he visited France, Belgium, and Germany as part of a travel grant from the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios (1920) to train in the techniques of etching, engraving and lithography (e.g. issues 10, 13, 16). In these essays, his nationalist inclination towards art can also be perceived. To consult this journal, see the digitisation launched in 2020 to commemorate its centenary: https://revistanos.galiciana.gal/ [accessed 28 January 2024].

13 Sempre en Galiza centres fundamentally on political aspects, with the Statute of Autonomy of Galicia playing a protagonist role. Political issues of the time are analysed throughout this work, such as agrarian policy, fiscal reforms, federalism and territorial organisation, the civil war, or the problems of the Galician language. For Castelao’s political thinking see: Beramendi & Máiz Suárez, 1992; Garrido Couceiro, 2000; Máiz, 2000; Méixome Quinteiro, 2000.

14 The exhibition ‘Castelao e as cruces de pedra’ was held at the Museo de Pontevedra (2000) under the promotion of both this institution and the Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza. Later, in 2004, this same museum commemorated Castelao’s visit to Brittany with another exhibition: ‘Castelao en Bretaña’. For the catalogues: Valle Pérez, 2000, 2004.

15 Apart from As cruces de pedra na Bretaña, he also published as a result of this trip the essays ‘Sant’Iago na Bretaña’ (Castelao, 1929, 1930b).

16 The edition used is Castelao, A. (1950/1984). As cruces de pedra na Galiza. Galaxia. For the discourse analysis of this book, selected fragments of the texts referring to identity were introduced into a database. These quotes were associated with a series of tags or thematic keywords to categorise them. Some of the tags used were: ‘ethnicity, ‘celt’, ‘tradition’, or ‘inherent art/own art’.

17 Galicia Diplomática was a journal devoted to historical and cultural issues that had a significant role in the identitarian process, with studies on archaeology, history, literature, art, or documentation. See Rivo Vázquez (2012).

18 He also examined the Irish round towers, establishing pagan origins and disputing George Petrie’s theory that they were built after Christianity was introduced to Ireland (Harbison, 2014; Sheehy, 1980, pp. 22–23).

19 O'Neill was also a member of the Repeal Association and was involved in the political movements of his time. He painted the members of Young Ireland and Daniel O'Connell during his time in jail (Sheehy, 1980, pp. 17–27, 29–39).

20 An essential part of this link with Ireland was the translation of Irish works into Galician. The translation of the Leabhar Gabhála Éireann (tenth century) – or Book of the Invasions of Ireland – is especially significant since it connects Galicia and the Celtic invasion of Ireland (Lugrís Álvarez & Moscoso Mato, 2005; McKevitt, 2006–2007).

21 Therefore, these crosses were used as part of the ideological foundation of a community, being used to establish its sameness with some territories (Ireland, Scotland or Britanny) while helping to formulate its distinctiveness from others (Castile). Máiz (1989, pp. 269–274) established from the study of Sempre en Galiza a difference in Castelao’s formulations between ‘ethnicity of exclusion’ (Castile), ‘ethnicity of reintegration’ (Portugal) and ‘ethnicity of identification’ (Celtic Nations).

22 For Castelao, these crosses' round and organic shape fit the artistic and religious sensibility of Galicia and the other Celtic Nations (Castelao, 1950/1984, p. 55, 59). In fact, the association between organic and circular forms and the purported Celtic ancestry of the Galician people and their art can also be found in the reflections about Galician art of Luis Seoane (1910–1979). In his text ‘Arte galega’ (1961/1996, p. 18), Seoane states that ‘estas formas tendentes á espiral e ó círculo, envolventes, que se advirten como característica da arte celta, dinamizan o Románico galego facéndoo desviarse do seu estatismo fundamental; parece atopa-la súa natureza axeitada no Barroco, e percíbese na construcción dunha parte moi característica da pintura galega actual’ (‘These forms that tend to the spiral and the circle, enveloping, that are seen as characteristics of the Celtic art, dynamize the Galician Romanesque making it deviate from its fundamental statism; to find its suitable nature in the Baroque, and it is perceived in the construction of a very characteristic part of the current Galician painting)’. Thus, it is understood that these ethnic antecedents of the nation endure across centuries, either being adapted or influencing a preference towards certain artistic styles. This looking back at the multiple pasts – ancient, medieval, and modern – does not yield incompatibility; rather, the diverse facets of national construction coexist, fostering a continuity throughout the centuries and the diverse artistic trends that are appropriated as part of the national discourse.

23 For this idea in Castelao’s thought see Máiz, 1989.

24 This idea of continuity with the past is fundamental in the creation of national historical narratives, as it shows the nation as an inalterable and enduring vehicle of cultural identity (Anderson, 1983/1991, p. 22).

25 Castelao delivered his speech Alba de Groria in Buenos Aires on the Día da Patria Galega (25 July) of 1948. In this speech he creates a Santa Compaña with all the great figures of Galician history. It is particularly noteworthy the large presence of medieval figures: from Prisciliano to the Irmandiños (Castelao, 1948/2018).

26 Besides looking to the Middle Ages searching for the first traces of a national art, the medieval past was also examined in search of figures or milestones that would be part of the national history and the land's identity (Geary, 2002). In this sense, the Middle Ages played an essential role in the construction of the Galician nation, as in many other European cases. In the works of Castelao, there are numerous references to different figures or episodes from this historical period, standing out the bishop Gelmírez, the marshal Pardo de Cela, Roi Xordo and the irmandiños, Paio Gomez Chariño and the Castro sisters: Inés and Juana (Villares, 2011, 2015).

27 Mentions of its pilgrimage route often accompany these references to the Cathedral of Santiago. This route is referred to as the primary connection between Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, drawing attention to Galicia's cultural links with the rest of the continent: ‘A invención do corpo do Apóstolo – ¿Prisciliano ou Santiago? – fixo da nosa Terra un centro de universalidade’ (‘The inventio of the Apostle’s body – ¿Priscilian or Saint James? – made our land a centre of universality’) (Castelao, 1944/2019; p. 64). See also Castelao, 1930a, p. 156.

28 For the beginnings of this view of the Portal of Glory, see Mateo Sevilla, 1991.

29 In addition to Romanesque art, the Galician-Portuguese cantigas are another constant reference in Sempre en Galiza. Castelao associated this medieval lyrical poetry with the national essence of Galicia, serving him to create a cultural differentiation between this territory and Castile, associated the latter with epic literature (Castelao, 1944/2019, pp. 321–327).

30 Several exhibitions have been devoted to the artistic production of Castelao. For instance: ‘Castelao grafista. Pinturas, dibujos, estampas’, held at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Madrid, 2017); or ‘Castelao artista. Los fundamentos de su estilo (1905–1920)’, held at the Museo de Pontevedra (2016). See Valle Pérez, 2016; Fernández-Cid, 2017. See also the virtual visit to the two rooms dedicated to the work of Castelao at the Museo de Pontevedra [Museo de Pontevedra. (n.d.).] [accessed 2 February 2024].

31 It is also worth mentioning another common motif that he included in the illustrations for Revista Nós: the dolmen, a motif linked to the Celtic culture (Figure 6). Besides, in his visual contributions to this journal, there can also be found interlacing motifs inspired by medieval Irish art. The Dolmen was the cover of issue 7 (1921) and was included again in the definitive cover from issue 32 (1926). For the digitisation of Revista Nós see note 12.

32 An excellent example of this inspiration on Romanesque architecture is the famous cover of the journal Nós, which started being used in issue 10. In this cover, Castelao introduces a series of motifs that show an apparent influence of Romanesque iconography.

33 His visual inventory includes works from Galicia and other territories, for example, the drawing made during his trip to Brittany, where he captured the Calvaries of this territory. In this respect, there are hundreds of works by Castelao in which stone crosses from all periods are depicted.

34 Other examples of drawings inspired in the Portal of Glory can be found in several issues of this journal, both of Castelao and other authors, such as Xaquín Lorenzo or Camilo Díaz Baliño. See: Carballo-Calero, 1983/2020.

35 For Castelao (1950/1984, p. 125), any artistic style can enter Galicia and leave its mark there, but ‘sóio frorece o que as leis do xenio galego aloumiñan, é decir, o que se deixa recriar e pode ser galeguizado’ (‘only flourishes that which the laws of Galician genius caress, that is to say, that which allows itself to be recreated and can be Galicianised’).

36 There are similar references in As cruces de pedra na Galiza, where Castelao also highlights the idea of Baroque as a Galician national style in which this land developed masterpieces that could be compared to the Romanesque ones (Castelao, 1950/1984, p. 112).

37 In Spanish Plateresco, it is the term applied by some scholars to the late-Gothic and early-Renaissance in Spanish architecture (Camón Aznar, 1945).

38 In this statement, he is creating a reference to the Castilian domination through a foreign style introduced in the Romanesque city par excellence. This rejection is connected to the appropriation by Spanish nationalism of the art and architecture developed during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs as the national style and glorious past of the nation (Ortiz Pradas, 2017).

39 ‘Porque o mesmo cando creaba formas propias, que cando recollía influencias alleas, ás que lles infundía emoción creadora, o espírito peculiar do país brillou moitas veces con esplendores gloriosos. Tal aconteceu coa alborada luminosa do Románico […]. Daquela a nosa voz ouviuse nidiamente’ (‘Because when it created its own forms and also when it gathered foreign influences, to which it infused creative emotion, the peculiar spirit of the country often shone with glorious splendour. This happened with the luminous dawn of the Romanesque […]. Then our voice was clearly heard’). Gómez Román, 1951/1990, p. 19.

40 This inspiration in the art of the past from a nationalist theory was especially relevant in the field of architecture, where the Romanesque and Baroque inspired many projects of regionalist architects (Iglesias Veiga, 2019).

41 ‘Our genuine form of expression’. Gómez Román, 1951/1990, p. 19.

42 See note 22.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Sara Carreño

Dr. Sara Carreño is Assistant Professor in the Department of Art History at the University of Santiago de Compostela, where she obtained her PhD degree in April 2020. Previously, she worked for this same department as PhD Fellow (2016-2019) and in 2021 she joined the Department of Cultural Heritage at the University of Padua where she worked as a Postdoctoral Researcher for the ERC project SenSArt. Throughout her career, she has visited several research centres, such as the Warburg Institute (University of London), the Centro de Investigação Transdiscipinar 'Cultura, Espaço e Memória' (Universidade do Porto), the Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and the Instituto de Estudos Medievais (Universidade Nova de Lisboa), where she is an associate researcher. Her research focuses on the experience and reception of late medieval sacred art, approaching the functions of religious images and spaces and the relationships they establish with their audiences. She also works on issues related to memory and the construction of identity, investigating the uses and interpretations of medieval art in nineteenth and twentieth-century historiography.