Sport for All? The ‘Sports City Programme’ in Norway

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Notes

 1. P. DeKnop et al., ‘Sport in a Changing Society’, in P. DeKnop et al. (eds.), Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1996); P. DeKnop, L.-M. Engström and B. Skirstad, ‘Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport’, in DeKnop et al., Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport; B. Skirstad and M.-K. Sisjord, ‘Norway’, in DeKnop et al., Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport; J. Coakley, Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies, 7^th ed (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001).

 2. On sport for all worldwide, see L. DaCosta and A. Miragaya (eds.), Worldwide experiences and trends in sport for all (Oxford: Meyer and Meyer Sport, 2002). For Nordic contributions see B. Ibsen and P. Jørgensen, ‘Denmark: The Cultural and Voluntary Development of Sport for All’, in DaCosta and Miragaya, Worldwide experiences; J. Savola, ‘Finland: the Country where Sport is for All’, in DaCosta and Miragaya, Worldwide experiences.

 3. DeKnop et al., ‘Sport in a Changing Society’; DeKnop et al., ‘Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport’; Skirstad and Sisjord, ‘Norway’; Coakley, Sport in Society. Issues and Controversies.

 4. B. Beal, ‘Disqualifying the official: an exploration of social resistance through the subculture of skateboarding’, Sociology of Sport Journal, 12 (1995), 252–67; J. Coakley, ‘Burnout Among Adolescent Athletes: A Personal Failure or Social Problem?’, Sociology of Sport Journal, 9 (1992), 271–85; J. Coakley and A. White, ‘Making Decisions: Gender and sport Participation Among British Adolescents’, Sociology of Sport Journal, 9 (1992), 20–35; R.E. Rinehart, ‘Arriving Sport: Alternatives to Formal Sports’, in J. Coakley and E. Dunning (eds.), Handbook of sports studies (London: Sage, 2000).

 5. NOK 10 million (€1.25 million) are annually granted for The Sports City Program (out of NOC's NOK 310 million [€ 39 million] from the total NOK 860 million [€109 million] gambling revenues). Most of this money goes to administration of NOC and its special sport federations.

 6. P. Bourdieu, Language and symbolic power (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).

 7. Beal, ‘Disqualifying the official’, p.253.

 8. H. Vaugrand, ‘Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Marie Brohm. Their Schemes of Intelligibility and Issues towards a Theory of Knowledge in the Sociology of Sport’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 36 (2001), 189 (183–201). Italics added.

 9. P. Bourdieu, Outline of a theory of practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); P. Bourdieu, Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste (London: Routledge, 1984); P. Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).

10. P. Bourdieu, ‘How can one be a sportsman?’, in P. Bourdieu, Sociology in Question (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993), p.130.

11. Bourdieu, Outline of a theory of practice; Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice.

12. Bourdieu, Language & symbolic power, p.117, original emphasis.

13. K. Skogen, ‘A touch of class – the persistence of class cultures among Norwegian youth’, The Nordic Journal of Youth Research, 6 (1998), 15–37; C. Thrane, ‘The Differentiation of Personal Sport Expenditures: The Norwegian Case’, International Journal of Sport Management, 2 (2001), 237–51; L.-M. Engström, ‘The process of socialization into keep-fit activities’, Scandinavian Journal of Sports Science, 8 (1986), 89–97.

14. B. Houlihan, Sport, policy and politics: a comparative analysis (London: Routledge, 1997); B. Houlihan, ‘Politics and sport’, in J. Coakley and E. Dunning (eds.), Handbook of sports studies (London: Sage, 2000); M. Goksøyr, Staten og idretten 1861–1991 [The state and the sport 1861–1991] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1992); M. Goksøyr, E. Andersen and K. Asdal, Kropp, kultur og tippekamp [Body, culture and TV-soccer] (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1996); S. Tønnesson, Folkehelse, trim, stjerner 1939–1986 [Public health, workout and stars] (Oslo: Aschehoug, 1986).

15. G. Esping-Andersen, The three worlds of welfare capitalism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990); S. Kuhnle and P. Selle, Government and voluntary organizations (Aldershot: Avebury, 1992).

16. B. Skirstad and K. Felde, ‘Sports policy in Norway’, in L. Chalip, A. Johnson and L. Stachura, National sports policies: an international handbook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996).

17. J.R. Norberg, ‘A Mutual Dependency: Nordic Sport Organizations and the State’, in H. Meinander and J.A. Mangan (eds.), The Nordic World: Sport in Society (London: Frank Cass, 1998).

18. J. Platt, ‘Evidence and Proof in Documentary Research: 1. Some Specific Problems of Documentary Research’, Sociological Review, 29 (1981), 31–52; J. Platt, ‘Evidence and Proof in Documentary Research: 2. Some Shared Problems of Documentary Research’, Sociological Review, 29 (1981), 53–66; M. Hammersley and P. Atkinson, Ethnography: principles in practice 2^nd ed (London: Routledge, 1995).

19. Stortings melding nummer 8, Om organisering og finansiering av kulturarbeid [About organizing and financing cultural work] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1973–74); Stortings melding nummer 52, Ny kulturpolitikk [New culture politics] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1973–74); Stortings melding nummer 23, Kulturpolitikk for 80–åra [Culture politics for the 80s] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1981–82); Stortings melding nummer 27, Nye oppgåver i kulturpolitikken [New tasks in the culture politics] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1983–84); Stortings melding nummer 41, Om idretten, folkebevegelse og folkeforlystelse [About sport, folk movement and folk recreation] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1991–92); Stortings melding nummer 14, Idrettsliv i endring [Sport life in change] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1999–2000).

20. Goksøyr, Staten og idretten 1861–1991; Goksøyr, Andersen and Asdal, Kropp, kultur og tippekamp; and Tønnesson, Folkehelse, trim, stjerner 1939–1986.

21. Stortings melding nummer 41 (1991–92), p.136.

22. Sport Department of the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Spillemidler 2001. Fysisk aktivitet og sosial integrasjon – idretten som samarbeidspart (tidligere Storbyprosjektet) [The gambling revenues 2001. Physical activity and social integration – sport as partner] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 2001). The cities are Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, Stavanger, Drammen, Fredrikstad, Kristiansand and Tromsø. In addition four municipalities, all of them around Oslo, participate. These are Nittedal, Lørenskog, Oppegård and Bærum.

23. Stortings melding nummer 41 (1991–92); St. m. nr. 14 (1999–2000).

24. Innstilling fra kirke- og undervisningskomiteen nummer 28, Innstilling fra kirke- og undervisningskomiteen om idretten – folkebevegelse og folkeforlystelse [Proposal from the Parliament committee of church and education, about sport – folk movement and folk recreation] (Stortinget, 1992–93); Stortings tidenda (27.10.92), Stortingsforhandlinger [Parliament negotiations] (Stortinget, 1992), pp.659–81.

25. Representative Blakset, in Stortings tidenda (1992), p.671.

26. Åse Kleveland, Minister of Cultural Affairs, in Stortings tidenda (1992), p.674.

27. S.R. Smith and M. Lipsky, Nonprofits for Hire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); L.M. Salomon and H.K. Anheier, ‘Social Origins of Civil Society: Explaining the Nonprofit Sector Cross-Nationally’, Voluntas, 9 (1998), 213–48; K.H. Sivesind et al., The Voluntary Sector in Norway. Composition, Changes and Causes (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 2002).

28. Stortings melding nummer 27, Om statens forhold til frivillige organisasjoner [About the state's relationship to voluntary organizations] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1996–97); Stortings melding nummer 44, Tilleggsmelding om statens forhold til frivillige organisasjoner [Additional report about the state's relationship to voluntary organizations] (Oslo: Kulturdepartementet, 1997–98).

29. Stortings melding nummer 14 (1999–2000), p.58.

30. Innstilling fra familie- kultur- og administrasjonskomitten nummer 147, Innstilling fra familie-, kultur- og administrasjonskomiteen om idrettslivet i endring – om statens forhold til idrett og fysisk aktivitet [Proposal from the Parliament committee of family, culture and administration – about the state's relationship to sport and physical activity] (Stortinget, 2000–01).

31. Y. Ommundsen, Self evaluation, affect and dropout in the soccer domain (Oslo: Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education, 1992); R. Säfvenbom, Four thousand hours a year. Leisure time and its developmental potential for adolescents at youth protection institutions (Oslo: Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education, 1998).

32. Hordaland Sport Association, Fysisk aktivitet og sosial tilhørighet – idretten som samarbeidspart. Rapport 2002 [Physical activity and social integration – sport as partner. Report 2002] (Bergen: Hordaland idrettskrets, 2003).

33. Cf. Bourdieu, Outline of a theory of practice, p.167.

34. J. Coakley, ‘Sport and Socialization’, Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 21 (1993), 169–200; Skogen, ‘A touch of class’; Thrane, ‘The Differentiation of Personal Sport Expenditures’; Engström, ‘The process of socialization into keep-fit activities’.

35. T. Øia, Innvandrerungdom – marginalisering og utvikling av problemadferd [Immigrant youth – marginalization and development of unwanted behaviour] (Oslo: Institute for social research, 2000); Å. Strandbu and S. Bjerkeset, Ungdom og idrett i et flerkulturelt samfunn [Adolescents and sport in a multicultural society] (Oslo: Institute for social research, 1998); A. Bakken, Ungdomstid i storbyen [Adolescence in the city] (Oslo: Institute for social research, 1998); K. Hegna and V. Vestel, Med ungdom i sentrum – om trivsel, rusmidler og sentrumsbruk blant ungdom i Bergen [With adolescents downtown – about joy, drugs and being downtown among adolescents in the city of Bergen] (Oslo: Institute for social research, 1997).

36. Beal, ‘Disqualifying the official’; Coakley, ‘Burnout Among Adolescent Athletes’; Coakley and White, ‘Making Decisions’; DeKnop et al., ‘Sport in a Changing Society’; DeKnop et al., ‘Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport’; Skirstad and Sisjord, ‘Norway’; Rinehart, ‘Arriving Sport’.

37. R. Säfvenbom, ‘The “Goodness of Fit” in Norwegian Youth Sports', in C. Brackenridge, D. Howe and F. Jordan (eds.), Just leisure: Equity, Social Exclusion and Identity (Eastbourne: Leisure Studies Association, 2000).

38. P. Bourdieu, ‘Sport and social class’, Social Science Information, 17 (1978), 819–40; Bourdieu, Distinction.

39. P. Bourdieu, ‘The Myth of “Globalisation” and the European welfare State’, in P. Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998). Bourdieu's concept of ‘sociodicy’ is a re-conceptualization of Weber's statement on dominant groups' need for a ‘theodicy of their own privilege’.

40. Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance, p.43.

41. E. Amnå, ‘Volunteerism and culture in the Nordic welfare states’, in E. Amnå, E.T. Lundström and L. Svedberg, Three essays on Volunteerism and Voluntary Organisations (Stockholm: Ersta Sköndal University College, 2000); S.R. Smith and M. Lipsky, Nonprofits for Hire; K.H. Sivesind et al., The Nonprofit Sector in Norway, (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 2002); Stortings melding nummer 27 (1996–97); Stortings melding nummer 44 (1997–98); Office of the Auditor General, Riksrevisjonens undersøkelse av forvaltningen av rammetilskuddet til Norges Idrettsforbund [The Office of the Auditor General's investigation on the administration of the economic transferring to the NOC] (Oslo: Riksrevisjonen, 1998); Sport Department of the Ministry of Cultural and Church Affairs, Finansieringen av statlig idrettspolitikk. Kartlegging, vurdering og forslag til tiltak for bedre måloppnåelse [The financies of public sport politics. Monitoring, evaluation and proposals for better goal achievements] (Oslo: Kultur- og kirkedepartementet, 2003).

42. Bourdieu, Outline of a theory of practice, p.167.

43. Ibid., p.168–9.

44. Beal, ‘Disqualifying the official’; Coakley, ‘Burnout Among Adolescent Athletes’; Coakley and White, ‘Making Decisions’; DeKnop et al., ‘Sport in a Changing Society’; DeKnop et al., ‘Worldwide Trends in Youth Sport’; Skirstad and Sisjord, ‘Norway’; Rinehart, ‘Arriving Sport’

45. Stortings melding nummer 14, p.19.

46. Bourdieu, Outline of a theory of practice, p.169.

47. Bourdieu, Language & Symbolic Power, p.117.