Fathers’ contributions to attachment in adolescence and adulthood: the moderating role of race, gender, income, and residential status

ABSTRACT

Fathers play a critical yet underappreciated role in adolescent development. To examine contributions of fathers’ parenting to attachment in adolescence and adulthood, this longitudinal study followed 184 adolescents from ages 13–24. At age 13, adolescents reported on their fathers’ parenting behavior and were observed in a father–teen conflict task; at ages 14 and 24, they completed the Adult Attachment Interview. Adolescents who lived with their father showed higher attachment security at age 14 (Cohen’s d = .72), compared to those with non-residential fathers. Fathers’ positive relatedness and support for teens’ psychological autonomy predicted attachment security at age 14. Fathers’ physical aggression predicted attachment insecurity in adolescence, whereas fathers’ verbal aggression predicted insecurity in adulthood, illuminating developmental shifts. Pathways to security were moderated by father residential status, adolescent gender, and race. Findings underscore the importance of fathers’ presence, autonomy support, and non-aggression in predicting adolescents’ state of mind in close relationships.

KEYWORDS:

• Attachment
• adolescence
• fathers
• parent–child relationships
• fatherhood

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the families who participated in the study, and to the many research assistants and project coordinators who helped to collect and code the data.

Note from the first author: This paper is dedicated in loving memory of my dad, Dennis Stern (1946–2023), forever my secure base.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data are not publicly available, due to ethical/confidentiality restrictions.

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grant/Award Number: [5R37HD058305-23] and [R01HD058305]; and by the National Institute of Mental Health, Grant/Award Number: [R01-MH58066]. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not represent the official views of NIH.