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ABSTRACT
Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes have become a standard component of international peace and security programming. Yet, in spite of increasing attention to the need for gender-sensitive DDR in policy and academic debates, the stereotypical ways in which female ex-combatants have traditionally been addressed have led to inadequate gendered reintegration policies. This article describes the effects of a gender-blind reintegration process on female ex-combatants’ experiences of long-term social reintegration in Guatemala. Social reintegration is a profoundly gendered process, which involves the rebuilding of civilian identities, social relationships, and trust between social groups. Based on in-depth interviews with female ex-combatants, this article describes how the absence of gender-sensitive reintegration strategies produced various problems for women. They faced difficulties in their emotional and family relationships, leading to mental health struggles and even violence, as well as persistent stigma which produced anxiety and challenges in the labor market. The article concludes with suggestions for making reintegration a gender-transformative process, by crossing the private–public divide, increasing collective strategies, and better aligning with transitional justice processes.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the women who participated in this research. The author would also like to thank her colleagues in the UK and Guatemala for their thoughts and advice during the writing of this article, and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback. This research would not have been possible without support from the British Academy, the Leverhulme Trust, the Institute for Global Innovation of the University of Birmingham, and ESRC IAA funding.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 To prevent such experiences, I shared interview transcripts and various drafts of data analysis with the participants, with whom I maintained communication over time. In addition, I held a series of workshops to discuss the findings and work toward the production of a Spanish-language book, a process that is still ongoing.
2 “Mestiza” refers to a mixed European and Indigenous background.
3 Interview with the author, June 2018.
4 Interview with the author, July 2018.
5 Interviews with the author, June 2018.
6 Interview with the author, June 2018.
7 Interview with the author, June 2018.
8 Informal conversation with the author, March 2019.
9 Interview with the author, June 2018.
10 Interview with the author, June 2018.
11 Interviews with the author, June and July 2018.
12 Interview with the author, June 2018.
13 Ibid.
14 Interview with the author, July 2018.
15 Interviews with the author, June 2018.
16 Interview with the author, June 2018.
17 Interview with the author, July 2018.
18 Interview with the author, July 2018.
19 Interview with the author, July 2018.
20 Interview with the author, November 2019.
21 Interview with the author, July 2018.
22 Interview with the author, November 2019.
23 Interview with the author, July 2018.
24 Ibid.
25 Interviews with the author, June and July 2018.
26 Interview with the author, June 2018.
27 Interview with the author, July 2018.
28 Interview with the author, July 2018.
29 Focus group with the author, March 2019.
30 Interview with the author, June 2018.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Sanne Weber
Sanne Weber is a Leverhulme Early Career Fellow in the International Development Department at the University of Birmingham. Her current research focuses on the gendered dynamics of reintegration in Guatemala and Colombia. She received her PhD in 2018 from the Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations at Coventry University.