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ABSTRACT
In his book A Great and Noble Scheme (2005), historian John Mack Faragher explains that the 1755–63 Acadian deportation can be termed “ethnic cleansing,” following contemporary United Nations and scholarly usage of the expression. In this paper, instead of addressing the terms of contemporary UN or scholarship, as Faragher does, to see which terms can be used for the Acadian tragedy, I provide a terminological history of the Acadian tragedy. This terminological history studies the terms used for the Acadian tragedy since the eighteenth century until the early twentieth century and shows how they recur in the mid-twentieth century discussions on genocide. First, I investigate Edmund Burke’s treatment of the Acadian tragedy seen as resulting from acts of destroying, rooting out, and extirpating, and the Abbot Raynal using terms for the tragedy such as embarking, transporting, driving away (later deporting), destroying, perishing, depopulating, and, indirectly, crime against humanity. I also focus on the nineteenth-century account of the Acadian tragedy by Catherine Reed Williams, who expanded Raynal with notions of barbarity, banishment, expulsion, extermination, and moral shock, and on others after her who brought terms for Acadians such as annihilation, atrocity, evacuation, and clearing. Second, I highlight Acadian memory in the 1950s genocide debate in Washington (DC) and how the terminological history of the Acadian tragedy appears in a document Raphael Lemkin had on Acadians. I also explain how Lemkin, unknowingly or not, rearticulated in publications and texts and found in his research the terms already used for Acadians as he addressed his genocide concept.
KEYWORDS:
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank in alphabetical order Eric Cheyfitz, Yves Frenette, Gregory Kennedy, Jonathan Monroe, Jon Parmenter, and Enzo Traverso, the two anonymous reviewers, and editors of the journal for discussions or comments on questions related to this paper; I would also like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Cornell University and its Department of Romance Studies and the Partnership Project Trois siècles de migrations francophones en Amérique du Nord (1640-1940) and the Insitut d'études acadiennes of the Université de Moncton for their support; errors that may appear in this paper are my own.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 John Mack Faragher, “Commentary. Settler Colonial Studies and the North American Frontier,” Settler Colonial Studies, 4, no. 2 (2014): 188; John Mack Faragher, “‘A Great and Noble Scheme’: Thoughts on the Expulsion of the Acadians,” Acadiensis, 36, no. 1 (Autumn 2006): 85.
2 John Mack Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme. The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from Their American Homeland (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2005), xviii-xix, 444, 391, 470–1, 336, 290, 472–3; see Faragher’s book and works cited, on which I rely in this paragraph and below, for historical context; numbers could be debated: Stephen A. White, “The True Number of Acadians,” in Du Grand Dérangement à la Déportation. Nouvelles perspectives historiques, dir. Ronnie-Gilles LeBlanc (Moncton: Chaire d’études acadiennes, 2005), 21–56.
3 Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme, 469–70.
4 James T. Kloppenberg, “A Well-Tempered Liberalism: Modern Intellectual History and Political Theory,” Modern Intellectual History, 10, no. 3 (2013): 658–9, who does not address this terminological possibility.
5 A. Dirk Moses, The Problems of Genocide. Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 28, 44 (italics in the text).
6 Ben Kiernan, “Is ‘Genocide’ an Anachronistic Concept for the Study of Early Modern Mass Killing?,” History, 99, no. 336 (July, 2004): 530–48; Andrew Fitzmaurice, “Anticolonialism in Western Political Thought. The Colonial Origins of the Concept of Genocide,” in Empire, Colony, Genocide. Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, ed. A. Dirk Moses (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008), 55–80.
7 Ronnie-Gilles LeBlanc, “Du ‘dérangement des guerres’ au Grand Dérangement: la longue évolution d’un concept,” in Du Grand Dérangement à la Déportation, dir. LeBlanc, 11–20.
8 Among others: John Mack Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme, 447–51; John Mack Faragher, “The Expulsion of the Acadians in a Broader Context,” in Rethinking New Acadia. Recent Interpretations of the Acadians’ Dispersal and Arrival in Louisiana, ed. Michael S. Martin (Lafayette: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2019), 7; Susan Graham, “‘A Warm Politition and Devotedly Attached to the Democratic Party’: Catharine Read Williams, Politics, and Literature in Antebellum America,” Journal of the Early Republic, 30, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 271–3; in Longfellow’s poem on Acadians, I have not found, so far, words that recur in Lemkin, see Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Evangeline, A Tale of Acadie (Boston: William D. Ticknor & Company, 1847): https://archive.org/details/evangelinetaleof1847long/page/n6/mode/1up (accessed 15 July 2024).
9 A J. B. (John) Johnston, “The Acadian Deportation in a Comparative Context: An Introduction,” Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, 10 (2007): 114–31; Fidèle Thériault, “Déranger ou déporter?” and Christian Néron, “Le génocide est un crime absolu,” “Le crime absolu,” “Sa majesté ne meurt jamais,” La revue d’histoire de la Société historique Nicolas-Denys, XXIII, no. 3, (sept-déc 2005): 72–7, 143–6.
10 Julien Massicotte, “De Grand-Pré à Auschwitz,” Bulletin d’histoire politique, 15, no. 1 (Automne 2006): 240, 239: “tribunal de Nuremberg en 1945”; Naomi E. S. Griffiths, The Contexts of Acadian History, 1686–1784 (Montreal, Kingston, London, and Buffalo: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), 93, 103; John Mack Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme, 470: “‘mass murder’”; Maurice Basque, “Atlantic Realities, Acadian Identities, Arcadian Dreams” in Shaping an Agenda for Atlantic Canada, eds. John G. Reid and Donald J. Savoie (Halifax and Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2011), 66: “contemporary history”; John Edwards, “Response. Et in Arcadia Ego” in Shaping an Agenda for Atlantic Canada, eds. Reid and Savoie, 79; Emmanuel Klimis et Jacques Vanderlinden, “Deux juristes face à un événement historique ou du bon usage du droit face aux faits,” Du Grand Dérangement à la Déportation, dir. LeBlanc, 67–8: but admit that “parler à cet égard de génocide ou de crime contre l’humanité est une position qui peut être soutenue”; A J. B. (John) Johnston, “The Acadian Deportation,” 125; Thomas Garden Barnes, “Historiography of the Acadians’ Grand Dérangement, 1755,” Québec Studies, no. 7 (1988): 78; W. Earle Lockerby, “Le serment d’allégeance, le service militaire, les déportations et les Acadiens: opinions de France et de Québec aux 17e et 18e siècles,” Acadiensis, 37, no. 1 (Winter/Spring 2008): 152–3 and notes 13–4.
11 Thériault, “Déranger ou déporter?,” 73 (“ ‘l’holocauste’”), 76–7 and Néron, “Le génocide est un crime absolu,” “Le crime absolu,” “Sa majesté ne meurt jamais”: 143–6 (“droit pénal international,” 144).
12 Michael A. McDonnell and A. Dirk Moses, “Raphael Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas,” Journal of Genocide Research 7, 4 (December 2005): 501; A. Dirk Moses, “The Holocaust and Genocide,” in The Historiography of the Holocaust, ed. Dan Stone (Houndmills and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 535–40; A. Dirk Moses, “Moving the Genocide Debate Beyond the History Wars,” Australian Journal of Politics and History, 54, no. 2 (2008): 255.
13 Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 15, see also 482; also Enzo Traverso, Le passé, modes d’emploi. Histoire, mémoire, politique (Paris: La Fabrique éditions, 2005), 56; Raphaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation. Analysis of Government. Proposals for Redress, 2nd ed., Introduction to the Second Edition by William A. Schabas, Introduction to the Frist Edition by Samantha Power (1944; repr., Clark, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd, 2008), 79; Raphael Lemkin, “Introduction to Genocide” in Lemkin on Genocide. Written by Raphael Lemkin, ed. and intro. Steven Leonard Jacobs (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2012), 5, see xi, note 11 where Jacobs says date of Lemkin text is “sometime after December 1948”; also Raphael Lemkin, “War Against Genocide,” The Christian Science Monitor, Boston, 31 January 1948, 2, Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law,” American Journal of International Law, 41, no. 1 (January 1947): 149, Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide, A New International Crime: Punishment and Prevention,” Revue internationale de droit pénal, 17e Année, Nos 1 et 2 (1946): 366–7, Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime under International Law,” United Nations Bulletin, 15 January 1948, 70, Raphael Lemkin, “Senate Weighs Genocide Convention,” Foreign Policy Bulletin, XXIX, no. 15, 20 January 1950-Kraus Reprint Co., New York, 1968, 180, Raphael Lemkin, “My Battle with Half the World,” The Chicago Jewish Forum. A National Quarterly, 11, no. 1, Fall 1952, 98–9, Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide Must Be Outlawed,” The National Jewish Monthly, 64, no. 2 (October 1949): 44, Raphael Lemkin in Robert Merrill Bartlett, “Pioneer vs. an Ancient Crime,” The Christian Century, 18 July 1956, 854: https://archive.org/details/sim_christian-century_1956-07-18_73_29/page/854/mode/1up (accessed 28 February 2024).
14 Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 203, 218.
15 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79 (italics in the text); see also Raphael Lemkin, “Le génocide,” Revue internationale de droit pénal, 17e Année, Nos 1 et 2 (1946) : 371–2.
16 Norman Naimark, Genocide: A World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 5; in Moses, “The Holocaust and Genocide,” 544–7, this kind of view is characterized as “the liberal perspective” (546) treating implicitly or explicitly “the Holocaust as the paradigmatic genocide” (544), see also Dirk Moses, “Conceptual Blockages and Definitional Dilemmas in the ‘Racial Century’: Genocides of Indigenous Peoples and the Holocaust,” Patterns of Prejudice, 36, no. 4 (2002): 7–36, and Moses, The Problems of Genocide, chapters 11 and 12.
17 Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime under International Law” (1947): 147; see also Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime”: 361 and Raphael Lemkin, “Senate Weighs Genocide Convention,” 180; see reflections in Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 217.
18 Raphael Lemkin in “Draft Convention on the Crime of Genocide,” 28 March 1947, in Hirad Abtahi and Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention. The Travaux Préparatoires. Volume I (Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008), 232–6: web.s.ebscohost.com through umoncton.ca/umcm-bibliotheque-champlain/ (accessed 1 November 2023); see also Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime”: 360–4.
19 Benjamin Madley, “Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods,” American Historical Review, 120, no. 1 (February 2015): 98–139; David E. Stannard, American Holocaust. The Conquest of the New World (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
20 Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme, 333, 479; some diminish this Yankee role, see Barnes, “Historiography of the Acadians’”: 81–2.
21 The approach and booktitle are more specific in Benjamin Madley, An American Genocide. The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016).
22 Andrew Woolford and Jeff Benvenuto, “Canada and Colonial Genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research, 17, no. 4 (2015): 377–8.
23 Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil. A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007), 244; Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 398; among others: McDonnell and Moses, “Raphael Lemkin as Historian”: 501–29; John Docker, “Are Settler-Colonies Inherently Genocidal? Re-reading Lemkin,” in Empire, Colony, Genocide, ed. Moses, 81–101; Naimark, Genocide.
24 Edmund Burke, “Speech on Presenting to the House of Commons (on the 11th February, 1780), A Plan for the Better Security of the Independence of Parliament and the Economic Reformation of the Civil & Other Establishments” in Edmund Burke, The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. Vol. II, with an introduction by F. W. Raffety (London, New York, and Toronto: Henry Frowde and Oxford University Press, [1770–1780] 1906), 370 (italics in the text): https://archive.org/details/worksofrighthono02burkiala/page/370/mode/1up (accessed 25 October 2023).
25 Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. I (London: W. Strahan, 1755), s.vv. “To extirpate,” “To destroy,” “Ex”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809190&view=1up&seq=764&skin=2021 (accessed 31 October 2023); Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. II (London: W. Strahan, 1755), s.vv. “To root,” “Out”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809207&seq=586 (accessed 13 October 2023).
26 Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. II (1755), s.v. “Root”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809207&seq=586 (accessed 12 October 2023); Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences Vol. III (Edinburgh: A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar, 1771), s.v. “Root”: https://archive.org/details/1771EncyclopediaBritannicaNLS/First%20edition%2C%201771%20-%20Encyclopaedia%20Britannica%3B%20or%2C%20A%20dictionary%20of%20arts%20and%20sciences%2C%20compiled%20upon%20a%20new%20plan%20%E2%80%A6%2C%20Volume%203%2C%20M-Z/page/n641/mode/1up (accessed July 4 2024); Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “To extirpate,” “ex,” consulted on umoncton.ca/umcm-bibliotheque-champlain/ (accessed 12 October 2023).
27 Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), s.v. “ex(s)tirpo”: https://archive.org/details/aa.-vv.-oxford-latin-dictionary-1968/page/657/mode/1up (accessed 12 October 2023).
28 Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. I (1755), s.vv. “To extirpate,” “To eradicate”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809190&view=1up&seq=764&skin=2021 (accessed 12 October 2023).
29 Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. I (1755), s.v. “To extirpate,” “To destroy”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809190&view=1up&seq=764&skin=2021 (accessed 12 October 2023); Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language Vol. II (1755), s.v. “To root”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326809207&seq=586 (accessed 12 October 2023); Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol. II (Edinburgh: A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar, 1771), s.v. “Extirpation”: https://archive.org/details/1771EncyclopediaBritannicaNLS/First%20edition%2C%201771%20-%20Encyclopaedia%20Britannica%3B%20or%2C%20A%20dictionary%20of%20arts%20and%20sciences%2C%20compiled%20upon%20a%20new%20plan%20%E2%80%A6%2C%20Volume%202%2C%20C-L/page/n482/mode/1up (accessed 31 October 2023).
30 For a different view on “extirpate” in another context, see Jeffrey Ostler, “‘To Extirpate the Indians”: An Indigenous Consciousness of Genocide in the Ohio Valley and Lower Great Lakes, 1750s-1810,” The William and Mary Quarterly, 72, no. 4 (October 2015): 587–8; see also Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 364 on “Botanical metaphors” and “the language of ‘uprooting’” in more recent reflections.
31 Guillaume-Thomas Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des établissemens et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes, Tome huitième (Genève: Jean-Leonard Pellet, 1780), 425, 440: “politique” and “Dès qu’on les eut réunis, on les embarqua sur des navires qui les transportèrent dans d’autres colonies Angloises”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961680&view=1up&seq=449&skin=2021 (accessed 21 December 2021).
32 Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome premier. A = K (Nismes: Pierre Beaume, 1778), s.v. “Déporter”: “se désister, se départir”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/332/mode/1up (accessed 25 October 2023); Abbé Féraud, Dictionaire critique, de la langue française. Tome premier. A = D (Marseille: Jean Mossy Pere et Fils-Librairies à la Canebiere, 1787), s.v. “Déporter”: “Se désister, se départir de”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f747.item.texteImage (accessed 25 October 2023); Dictionnaire Historique de la langue française, dir. Alain Rey, Nouvelle édition (première édition, 1993; Paris: Les Dictionnaires le Robert, 2011), s.v. “Déporter”: “Le sens moderne, ‘exiler en guise de châtiment’ […] est rare avant 1791”: https://archive.org/details/alainreyetal.dictionnairehistoriquedelalanguefrancaise4eed.lerobert2010 (accessed 15 November 2023).
33 Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.v. “Déportation”: “transporter des criminels dans un autre pays” and “les prisons d’Espagne pour peupler la Colonie”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f747.item.texteImage (accessed 25 August 2022); Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome premier. A = K (1778), s.v. “Déportation”: “C’étoit dans l’ancienne Rome un bannissement perpétuel”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/332/mode/1up (accessed 25 October 2023); Diderot and D’Alembert (mis en ordre et publié par), Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres. Nouvelle édition. Tome dixième (Genève: Pellet, 1779), s.v. “Déportation”: “[…] chez les Romains […] La déportation […] avoit quelque rapport au banissement perpétuel” (italics in the text): https://archive.org/details/encyclopdieoud10soci/page/761/mode/1up (accessed 4 July 2024); in “Opinion of Jonathan Belcher. 28 July 1755. Enclosure in Letter of 14th April 1756 – Lords of Trade to Fox” in Michel Bastarache, “The opinion of the Chief Justice of Nova Scotia Regarding the Deportation of the Acadians,” Ottawa Law Review, 42, no. 2 (2010–2011): 264, Acadians are considered “Rebels to His Majesty.”
34 Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.v. “Déportation”: “Ce mot a un sens passif: il se dit, non de ceux qui transportent, mais de ceux qui sont transportés” (italics in the text): https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f747.item.texteImage (accessed 25 October 2023).
35 Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique Tome huitième (1780), 424–5: “la cour de Londres, n’avoit eu l’inhumanité de chasser des isles Royale & de Saint-Jean les François,” “autrefois,” “à la Nouvelle-Ecosse,” and on page 156 Raynal was clearly aware of the Acadian presence on Ile Saint-Jean: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961680&view=1up&seq=448&skin=2021 (accessed 13 October 2023).
36 Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome premier. A = K (1778), s.v. “Chasser”: “Mettre dehors avec violence, contraindre, forcer de sortir de quelque lieu”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/186/mode/1up (accessed 3 September 2022); Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.v. “Chasser”: “Mettre dehors avec violence; forcer de sortir de quelque lieu”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f441.item.texteImage (accessed 26 October 2023).
37 “Annexe no 4. À la séance de la convention nationale du mardi 20 août 1793” in Archives parlementaires de 1787 à 1860. Recueil complet des débats législatifs et politiques des chambres françaises. Première série (1784 à 1799). Tome LXXII du 11 août 1793 au 24 août 1793 (Paris: Librairie Administrative Paul Dupont, 1907), 510: “chassons, faisons déporter de la République les agents de nos ennemis”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101018323467&view=1up&seq=524&skin=2021 (accessed 13 October 2023).
38 Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise, revu, corrigé et augmenté par l'Académie elle-même. Cinquième édition. Tome premier. A-K (Paris, J. J. Smits et Ce, 1799), s.v. “Déporter”: “ activement, bannir dans un lieu éloigné”: https://archive.org/details/dictionnairedel01acad/page/398/mode/1up (accessed 4 July 2024).
39 L. U. Fontaine, “Rapport sur les Acadiens de la province de Québec” in Voyage du Sieur de Diéreville en Acadie, précédé d’une introduction et suivi de notes et d’extraits par L. U. Fontaine (Québec: Imprimerie A. Côté et Cie, 1885), 146: “une grande partie des Acadiens fut déportée” (my emphasis): https://archive.org/details/Fontaine1885/page/n210/mode/1up (accessed 3 September 2022); see also Le Comte A. de Gobineau, Voyage à Terre-Neuve (Paris: Librairie de L. Hachette et Cie, 1861), 105: “déportés”: https://archive.org/details/voyageterreneuv00gobigoog/page/n115/mode/1up (accessed 26 October 2023); this semantic genealogy is not mentioned in the Dictionnaire historique de la langue française (2011) used above.
40 Dictionnaire Historique de la langue française (2011), dir. Rey, s.v. “Déporter”: comparison to “chasser” is not made in entry: https://archive.org/details/alainreyetal.dictionnairehistoriquedelalanguefrancaise4eed.lerobert2010 (accessed 25 October 2023).
41 Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique Tome huitième (1780), 439: “défendirent le plus,” “les Anglais vinrent à bout de chasser ces légitimes possesseurs,” “il fallut la disputer aux Mikmacks”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961680&view=1up&seq=463&skin=2021 (accessed 13 October 2023).
42 Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome premier. A = K (1778), s.v. “Disputer”: “Contester pour emporter ou pour conserver quelque chose”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/359/mode/1up (accessed 13 October 2023); Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.v. “Disputer”: “Contester pour emporter ou pour conserver quelque chose”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f820.item.texteImage (accessed 13 October 2023).
43 Abbé Féraud, Dictionaire critique, de la langue française. Tome second. E = N (Marseille: Jean Mossy Père et Fils et Librairies à la Canebiere, 1787), s.v. “Exterminateur”: “Quelques Auteurs font régir à exterminer la prép. de,” “C’est le régime de chasser” (italics in the text): https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50602b/f213.item (accessed 26 October 2023); Œuvres de M. l’Abbé Raynal. Tome quatrième, contenant le Tome second des Mémoires politiques (Genève: J. L. Pellet, 1784), 12: “exterminer les hérétiques de son royaume”: https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdemlabb04rayn/page/12/mode/1up (accessed 26 December 2021).
44 Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome second. E = N (1787), s.vv. “Exterminer,” “extermination”: “faire périr entièrement” and “destruction entière”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50602b/f213.item (accessed 2 September 2022); see also Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome premier. A = K (1778), s.vv. “Exterminer,” “extermination”: “détruire” and “destruction entière”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/462/mode/1up (accessed 27 December 2021).
45 Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique Tome huitième (1780), 441–2, 425, 440 : “L’Angleterre fit périr les François neutres de l’Acadie,” “détruire pour posséder,” “le plus grand nombre périt”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961680&view=1up&seq=465&skin=2021 (accessed September 2), 2022.
46 Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique Tome huitième (1780), 442: “L’envie, qui avoit dépeuplé cette terre, sembla l’avoir flétrie”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961680&view=1up&seq=466&skin=2021 (accessed 21 December 2021).
47 Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.vv. “Dépeuplement,” “Dépeupler”: “dégarnir un pays d’habitans, en diminuer extrêmement le nombre”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f745.item.texteImage (accessed 24 December 2021); Dictionnaire de l’Académie françoise. Nouvelle édition. Tome Premier. A = K (1778), s.v. “Dépeupler”: “Dégarnir un pays d’habitans, en diminuer extrêmement le nombre”: https://archive.org/details/1778dictionnaire01acaduoft/page/331/mode/1up (accessed 26 October 2023); Diderot and D’Alembert (mis en ordre et publié par), Encyclopédie Tome dixième (1779), s.v. “Dépopulation”: https://archive.org/details/encyclopdieoud10soci/page/760/mode/1up (accessed 31 October 2023).
48 Without Raynal on Acadians and linguistic study, Christopher Hodson, Acadian Diaspora. An Eighteenth-Century History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), in chapters 5 and 6, considers concern over “depopulation” in eighteenth-century France, which might explain Raynal’s vocabulary here.
49 Guillaume-Thomas Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des établissemens et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes. Tome septième (Genève: Jean-Léonard Pellet, 1780), 210, 212, 218–9: “le mole Saint-Nicolas,” “Les Acadiens & les Allemands,” “en 1763, y périrent d’abord avec une effrayante rapidité,” “un crime aussi énorme contre l’humanité”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822042961730&view=1up&seq=236&skin=2021 (accessed 10 March 2022); on Acadians being starved to death in Santo Domingo, see Christopher Hodson, The Acadian Diaspora, 114 and Christopher Hodson, “‘Des vassaux à désirer’: les Acadiens et l’Atlantique français,” trans. Cécile Vidal, Outre-mers, 96, no. 362–363 (2009): 121–2; see also “Boston, February 25” in The Boston-Gazette, and Country Journal, Monday, 25 February 1765 (accessed on readex.com through library.cornell.edu, 18 September 2021).
50 Guillaume-Thomas Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des établissemens et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes. Tome quatrième (Genève: Jean-Leonard Pellet, 1780), 395 : “Le sentiment de l’humanité ne s’affoiblit-il pas à mesure qu’on s’éloigne de son pays?”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.39767296&view=1up&seq=417&skin=2021 (accessed 4 July 2024).
51 Histoire philosophique et politique des établissemens & du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes. Tome septième (La Haye: Gosse, Fils, 1776), 452: “le saint respect que l’on doit à l’humanité”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5320300833&view=1up&seq=468&skin=2021 (accessed 7 September 2021); on humanity as universal benevolence, see Mr.*** (mis en ordre et publié par), Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres. Tome huitième. H = It (Neufchastel: Saumel Faulche & Compagnie, Librairies & Imprimeurs, 1765), s.v. “Humanité”: “sentiment de bienveillance pour tous les hommes”: https://archive.org/details/EncyclopeYdieouVIIIDide/page/348/mode/1up (accessed 4 July 2024); see also Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements & du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes. Tome troisième (La Haye: Gosse, Fils, 1776), 513: “ces heureux effets de la bienfaisance & de l’humanité”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.532030079x&view=1up&seq=529&skin=2021 (accessed 25 December 2021).
52 In this paper, I use the concept “crime against humanity” in Raynal’s sense. I will not address the concept used later in the French revolutionary period and the twentieth century. On this but without Raynal and Acadians, see Mark Antaki, “Esquisse d’une généalogie des crimes contre l’humanité”, Revue québécoise de droit international, hors-série avril 2007, Hommage à Katia Boustany, 63–80; also William J. Fenrick, “Should Crimes Against Humanity Replace War Crimes?” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 37, no. 3 (1999): 773, 775–9, and 776 on “crimes against humanity” “committed” “‘on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds’” and 774 on “civilian population,” etc.; on the notion of list, see Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 75–6, 110–1.
53 Mrs. Williams, The Neutral French; or, the Exiles of Nova Scotia, Two Volumes in One. Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Providence: Published by the Author, 1841), 58–9, vii: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=12&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2022).
54 For the word “dispersing” applied to Acadians, see Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1841), vi: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=12&skin=2021 (accessed 13 October 2023).
55 Mr. Macon, “Barbarities of the Enemy. May 1813” and “Extract of a letter from General Taylor to Admiral Warren, dated Head Quarters, Norfolk, 29th June, 1812” in Barbarities of the Enemy, Exposed in a Report of the Committee of the House of Representatives of the United States (Worcester: Isaac Sturtevant, 1814), 3–11, 100: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t6348h35r&view=1up&seq=11&skin=2021 (accessed 2 September 2022); “Barbarities of the Enemy,” The Weekly Register, Baltimore, Saturday, 14 August 1813, 379–81: https://archive.org/details/sim_niles-national-register_1813-08-14_4_102/page/379/mode/1up (accessed 17 August 2022); Francis Lieber, “Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field,” War Dept., Adjt. General’s Office, Washington, 24 April 1863 in The War of Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series III – Volume III, dir., Elihu Root (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899), 154: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hwansr&view=1up&seq=167&skin=2021 (accessed 14 February 2022); 260.
56 This can be compared to Moses, The Problems of Genocide, 196–7 and note 114 on “the collectivist approach” in “war crimes” discussions and “‘Individualistic’ or ‘Atomistic’” versions in the 1940s.
57 Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1841), 65, vii-viii, 12, ix (italics in the text): https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=71&skin=2021 (accessed 31 October 2023); Faragher, “The Expulsion of the Acadians,” 7 notices the double standard and that Williams’ Indian removals as “humane” “is completely contradicted by historical evidence,” but moral shock is not addressed.
58 Macon, “Barbarities of the Enemy. May 1813,” in Barbarities of the Enemy (1814), 7: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t6348h35r&view=1up&seq=15&skin=2021 (accessed 14 February 2022); “Barbarities of the Enemy,” The Weekly Register, Baltimore, Saturday, 14 August 1813, 379–81: https://archive.org/details/sim_niles-national-register_1813-08-14_4_102/page/379/mode/1up (accessed 17 August 2022); Graham, “‘A Warm Politition’”: 260 emphasizes the importance of 1812 for Williams’s “generation” but without the barbarity debate; on United States violence against Indigenous peoples before 1810, see Ostler, “‘To Extirpate the Indians’.”
59 Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1841), 63: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=69&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2021); Johnson’s English Dictionary (Philadelphia: Griffith & Simon, 1844), s.vv. “To deport,” “Deportment”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101074756840&view=1up&seq=315&skin=2021 (accessed 31 December 2021).
60 Johnson’s English Dictionary (1844), s.v. “Deportation”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101074756840&view=1up&seq=315&skin=2021 (accessed 3 April 2022); Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1844), 63–4, 202: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=69&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2021).
61 For definition quoted, see Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language … Vol. I (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. “Banishment”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435021619556&view=1up&seq=239&skin=2021 (accessed 29 October 2023).
62 Edward Everett, Orations and Speeches on Various Occasions. Vol. I, 3rd ed., (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1853), 66: https://archive.org/details/orationsandspee05evergoog/page/66/mode/1up (accessed 26 October 2023).
63 Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1841), 58–9: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=65&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2022).
64 For this kind of reasoning on Puritans already in 1690s America, see Bertrand Van Ruymbeke, L'Amérique avant les États-Unis. Une histoire de l'Amérique anglaise 1497–1776 (Flammarion: [2013] 2016), 439: “Comme l'écrira Penn : les puritains sont `des combattants pour la liberté de conscience lorsqu'ils sont opprimés mais les plus grands oppresseurs une fois au pouvoir'”.
65 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Ban,” accessed through library.cornell.edu, 2 January 2022; Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language Vol. I (1828), s.v. “Ban”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435021619556&view=1up&seq=236&skin=2021 (accessed 13 October 2023).
66 Book review of Philip H. Smith’s Acadia: A Lost Chapter in American History (1884) in The Catholic World, XL, no. 236, November 1884, 287: https://archive.org/details/CatholicWorldV040/page/287/mode/1up (accessed 4 July 2024).
67 Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 1 (1841), v: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=11&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2022).
68 Abraham Gesner, New Brunswick with Notes for Emigrants (London: Simmonds & Ward, 1847), 332: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=aeu.ark:/13960/t9r21q06r&view=1up&seq=376&skin=2021&size=150 (accessed 9 January 2022); William F. Ganong, A Monograph of the Place-nomenclature of the Province of New Brunswick (Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, Volume II, Section II, 1896-97), 184: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=aeu.ark:/13960/t4jm2r454&view=1up&seq=17&skin=2021 (accessed 4 July 2024); “Introductory” in Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society for the Years 1789-80. Volume II (Halifax: Morning Herald Office, 1881), 3: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x030131797&view=1up&seq=159&skin=2021 (accessed 9 January 2022).
69 Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language Vol. I (1828), s.v. “Expel”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435021619556&view=1up&seq=714&skin=2021&size=125 (accessed 3 September 2022).
70 “The Seven Years’ War The School of the Revolution,” “The Youth of Washington,” and “The Battle of Bloody Brook” in Everett, Orations and Speeches on Various Occasions. Vol. I (1853), 385, 566, 584, 638: https://archive.org/details/orationsandspee05evergoog/page/385/mode/1up (accessed 2 January 2022).
71 On this phrase but without Acadians, see Karl Jacoby, “‘The Broad Platform of Extermination’: Nature and Violence in the Nineteenth Century North American Borderlands,” Journal of Genocide Research, 10, no. 2 (June 2008): 249–67.
72 Williams, The Neutral French. Vol. 2 (1841), 25, 90: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t46q34n47&view=1up&seq=269&skin=2021 (accessed 1 November 2023).
73 Nineteenth-century authors could know the old meaning of extermination, see Richard Chenevix Trench, A Select Glossary of English Words Used Formerly in Senses Different from Their Present (London: John W. Parker and Son, 1859), s.v. “Exterminate, Extermination”: https://archive.org/details/selectglossaryof00tren/page/76/mode/1up (accessed 15 March 2022).
74 L. U. Fontaine, “Rapport sur les Acadiens de la province de Québec” in Voyage du Sieur de Diéreville en Acadie, (1885), 146 : “n’ont pas été totalement exterminés des établissements qu’ils avaient fondés”: https://archive.org/details/Fontaine1885/page/n210/mode/1up (accessed 1 January 2021).
75 Book review of Philip H. Smith’s Acadia: A Lost Chapter in American History (1884) in The Catholic World (1884), 287: https://archive.org/details/CatholicWorldV040/page/287/mode/1up (accessed 4 July 2024); The Century Dictionary of the English Language. An Encyclopedic Lexicon. Expirant – Fz. Part VIII (New York: The Century Co., 1889), s.v. “exterminate”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102813623&view=1up&seq=17&skin=2021 (accessed 3 September 2022); C. J. Smith, Synonyms and Antonyms: Kindred Words and their Opposites, 2nd ed., rev. (London and New York: George Bell & Sons, 1893), 168: https://archive.org/details/cu31924024891016/page/n179/mode/1up (accessed 3 September 2022).
76 W. A. Calnek and A. W. Savary, History of the County of Annapolis Including Old Port Royal and Acadia (Toronto, Montreal, Halifax, and London: William Brigs, C. W. Coates, and S. F. Huestis-Phillimore & Co., 1897), 128: https://archive.org/details/cihm_00386/page/128/mode/1up (accessed 21 April 2022).
77 Webster’s International Dictionary of the English Language, rev., enl., Noah Porter (Springfield, MA.: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1898), s.v. “Annihilation”: https://archive.org/details/webstersinternat00port/page/59/mode/1up (accessed 2 September 2022).
78 De La Varenne, “A Letter from Louisbourg, 1756,” in Ken Donovan, “Documents,” Acadiensis, 10, no. 1 (Autumn, 1980): 128.
79 “A Relation of the Misfortunes of the French Neutrals, as Laid before the Assembly of the Province of Pennsylvania by John Baptiste Galerm, One of the Said People. [Philadelphia, 1756]”: https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.1420090a/ (accessed 23 February 2021); also in Early American Imprints, Series 1, no. 7669 (filmed), accessed on readex.com through library.cornell.edu (23 February 2021).
80 Review of “Collections of the New Brunwick Historical Society, Volume iii, No. 8, pp. 113-297. St. John, N.B., 1909” in Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, 14, no. 1 (January 1910): 81, consulted on ustboniface.ca/biblio (accessed 4 July 2024).
81 Webster’s Practical Dictionary, ed. Noah Porter and Dorsey Gardner (Chicago and Springfield, Ma.: The Reilley & Britton Co. and G. & C. Merriam Co., 1910), s.v. “Atrocity”: https://archive.org/details/websterspractica00webs/page/25/mode/1up?ref=ol (accessed 2 September 2022); “General Amherst to Governor Lawrence. Albany, May 29th, 1759” in Selections from the Public Documents of the Province of Nova Scotia, ed. Thomas B. Akins (Halifax: Charles Annand, Publisher, 1969), 449: https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromp00akingoog/page/n465/mode/1up, (accessed 3 July, 2024); for a description of the killing of Acadian women and children and the context, see Faragher, “‘A Great and Noble Scheme’,”: 82 and see Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme, 405 on Amherst citation.
82 John Reynolds, The Pioneer History of Illinois Containing the Discovery in 1673 and the History of the Country to the Year 1818, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Fergus Printing Company, 1887), 66: https://archive.org/details/pioneerhistoryi00reyngoog/page/n68/mode/1up (accessed 25 April 2022).
83 Justin Winsor, “Authorities on the French and Indian Wars of New England and Acadia, 1688-1763” in Narrative and Critical History of America, ed. Justin Winsor (Boston, New York, and Cambridge: Houghton, Mifflin and Company and The Riverside Press, 1887), 460 note 5: https://archive.org/details/narrcrithistory05winsrich/page/460/mode/1up (accessed 25 August 2022); Walter S. Kerr, The Acadian Proscript. A Historical Drama in Five Acts (Oakland: Press of Harrington-McInnis Company, [1907]), n.p.: https://archive.org/details/acadianproscript00kerr/page/n14/mode/1up (accessed 25 August 2022); see also William Kirby, “Acadia,” The Canadian Methodist Magazine, VIII, July to December 1878, 86: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951000734212b&view=1up&seq=108&skin=2021 (accessed 25 April 2022).
84 See James Phinney Baxter, Historical Addresses. 1831-1921 (Portland, ME: 1877), 23 on “atrocity” as “act of cruelty” against Acadians: https://archive.org/details/historicaladdre00baxtgoog/page/n331/mode/1up (accessed 29 October 2023); Moses, The Problems of Genocide.
85 Émile Lauvrière, La tragédie d’un peuple. Histoire du peuple acadien de ses origines à nos jours, Tome Second (Paris: Éditions Bossard, 1922), 11 : “On a trop dit que l’évacuation des Acadiens fut une simple mesure de guerre, le déblaiement d’un terrain d’opérations militaires encombré de gens suspects” and “une flibusterie territoriale déterminée par une cupidité insatiable”: https://archive.org/details/latragdiedunpe02lauv/page/11/mode/1up (accessed 25 August 2022); for another use of evacuation, see De La Varenne, “A Letter from Louisbourg, 1756,” in Donovan, “Documents”: 128.
86 Dictionnaire de l’Académie française. Huitième édition. Tome Premier. A-G (Librairie Hachette, 1932), s.v. “Évacuation”: “Toute sortie en masse produite par nécessité, par ordre ou par des mesures de force”: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1280382r/f516.item (accessed 21 April 2022).
87 Féraud, Dictionaire critique Tome premier. A = D (1787), s.v. “Dépeuplement,” “Dépeupler”: “La guerre et la peste ont dépeuplé cette Province” (italics in the text): https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k506010/f745.item.texteImage (accessed 21 April 2022); Dictionnaire de l’Académie française. Huitième édition. Tome Premier. A-G (1932), s.v. “Dépeupler”: “les épidémies ont dépeuplé le pays” (italics in the text): https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1280382r/f387.item (accessed 26 October 2023).
88 “Statement of Mrs. Dorothy Madders Robinson, Member, Washington Advisory Committee of the Christian Social Relations Department of the Women’s Division of Christian Service of the Methodist Church” in Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign Relations. United States Senate. Eighty-First Congress. Second Session on Executive O. The International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. January 23, 24, 25, and 9 February 1950 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1950), 281: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015013408490&view=1up&seq=289&skin=2021 (accessed 5 January 2022).
89 Richard Lemay, “Bibliographie et documentation sur le problème acadien du Canada,” 1 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154) Box 7, Folder 10 in Subseries 1: Source Materials, Clippings and Correspondence, Misc., undated, 1763, 1919, 1947–1948 in Series III : History of Genocide, undated, 1763, 1919, circa 1921, 1940s, 1951, at the Center for Jewish History, New York : “connu,” “‘Déportation des Acadiens’”: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE501911 (accessed 1 September 2022).
90 Raphael Lemkin, “Revised Outline for Genocide Cases” in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Box 8, Folder 10 in Subseries 2: Research Essays and Correspondence, undated, 1763, 1919, 1947–1948, 1951 in Series III: History of Genocide Projected Book and North American Indian Research Correspondence, 1947–1948, 1951 at the Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE504924 (accessed 12 September 2023).
91 Raphael Lemkin to Mr. Constantine Jurgella, 2 January 1950, Yale University Law School, New Haven, Connecticut in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Box 2, Folder 3 in Subseries 1: Correspondence and Other, undated, 1945–1951 in Series II: Genocide Convention, undated, 1945–1951 at the Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE505317 (accessed 14 August 2022).
92 Lemay, “Bibliographie et documentation sur le problème acadien du Canada,” 2 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York: “embarquent tout ce monde et le dispersent le long de toutes les côtes de l’Atlantique”: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE501911 (accessed 25 August 2022).
93 Lemkin, “Revised Outline for Genocide Cases” in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE504924, (accessed 6 January 2021) and Lemkin, “Senate Weighs Genocide Convention,” 180; also Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1947): 147, Lemkin, “War Against Genocide,” 2, Raphael Lemkin, “The Legal Case Against Hitler I,” The Nation, 24 February 1945, 205, and Raphael Lemkin, “The Legal Case Against Hitler II,” The Nation, 10 March 1945, 270.
94 Lemay, “Bibliographie et documentation sur le problème acadien du Canada,” 1 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York : “à détruire leur conscience nationale”: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE501911 (accessed 24 February 2021).
95 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79; Lemkin in “Draft Convention on the Crime of Genocide,” 28 March 1947, in Abtahi and Webb, The Genocide Convention, 234–5: web.s.ebscohost.com through umoncton.ca/umcm-bibliotheque-champlain/ (accessed 1 November 2023); see also Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1948), 71 on “physical, biological, or cultural genocide.”
96 Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime,” 363.
97 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79; see also Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime,” 361.
98 Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime under International Law” (1947): 147; Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime”: 364, also 362; see also Lemkin, “Le génocide”: 380–1 and Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 86.
99 Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide,” The American Scholar, 15, no. 2, Spring (1946): 229.
100 Raphael Lemkin, “Rapport et projet de texte” in Ve conférence internationale pour l’unification du droit pénal (Madrid, 14–20 Octobre 1934), Luis Jimenez de Asua (dir.) (Paris: Editions A Pedone, 1935), 55: “Actes de barbarie,” “exécutés sur la population sans défense,” “un groupe de citoyen,” “une certaine collectivité”; see also Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1947): 146 note 3.
101 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 91 and on the writing dates of his book, see Lemkin’s Preface at xiv, and Lemkin, “Senate Weighs Genocide Convention,” 180; see also Lemkin, “Genocide, A New International Crime”: 207 and Lemkin, “My Battle with Half the World,” 99.
102 Lemkin, “War Against Genocide,” 2; Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime under International Law” (1948), 70; Lemkin, “Rapport et projet de texte,” 55: “évoquent […] une vive réaction dans la conscience de toute l’humanité civilisée”; see also Lemkin, “The Legal Case Against Hitler II”: 269–70; see also Lemkin, “Genocide Must Be Outlawed,” 44.
103 Raphael Lemkin, “Turkish Massacre of Armenians – Book-Length Manuscript, undated,” 60 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Box 8, Folder 14 in Subseries 2: Research Essays and Correspondence, undated, 1763, 1919, 1947–1948, 1951 in Series III: History of Genocide, undated, 1763, 1919, circa 1921, 1940s, 1951, at the Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE503541 (accessed 21 April 2022).
104 Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide – A Modern Crime,” Free World, 9, 4, 1945, 43; see also Lemkin, “Le génocide”: 348 and Lemkin, “The Legal Case Against Hitler II,” 269.
105 Lemkin, “Genocide” (1946): 230; see also Lemkin, “Genocide, A New International Crime,” 360–1, 368, Lemkin, “Genocide Must Be Outlawed,” 44.
106 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79, 87; see also Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime,” 360, 362, 365, 367, Raphael Lemkin, “Nature of Genocide. Confusion With Discrimination Against Individuals Seen,” New York Times, 14 June 1953, E10, Lemkin, “Senate Weighs Genocide Convention,” 181, and Lemkin “My Battle with Half the World,” 98.
107 Lemkin, “Genocide” (1946): 227; Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1947): 150–1; see also Lemkin, “Genocide, A New International Crime,” 362, 365–6, Lemkin, “The Legal Case Against Hitler II,” 270, and Lemkin, “Genocide Must Be Outlawed,” 44.
108 Lemkin, “Turkish Massacre of Armenians – Book-Length Manuscript, undated,” 91 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE503541 (accessed 25 April 2022); see also Lemkin, “Genocide, a New International Crime”: 361 and Lemkin, “The Legal Case against Hitler I,” 205–6.
109 American Committee’s Report cited in Lemkin, “Turkish Massacre of Armenians – Book-Length Manuscript, undated,” 94 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE503541 (accessed 21 April 2022).
110 Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79; Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide” (1946): 228; Raphael Lemkin, “Genocide Before the U.N. Importance of Resolution Declaring Crime International Is Stressed,” New York Times, 8 November 1946, 22, consulted on proquest.com through ustboniface.ca/biblio (accessed 31 October, 2023); see also Lemkin, “Genocide, A New International Crime”: 635.
111 “Statement of Mrs. Dorothy Madders Robinson,” in Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign Relations. United States Senate (1950), 281: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015013408490&view=1up&seq=289&skin=2021 (accessed 5 January 2022).
112 “Edward Channing, A History of the United States vols. I-V, Macmillan Co., New York 1929” in Notecard 1 (recto), “Bibliography – Amer. Indian (non-Spanish)” in “North American Indians – Miscellany,” in Raphael Lemkin Collections (P-154), Box 9, Folder 15 in Subseries 3: Research Index Cards, undated, [1948-1949] in Series III: History of Genocide, undated, 1763, 1919, circa 1921, 1940s, 1951 at the Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE505914 (accessed 8 March 2022); “The Deportation of the Acadians” in Edward Channing, A History of the United States. Volume II. A Century of Colonial History 1660–1760 (New York: Macmillan Company, 1908), 601–2: https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds02chanuoft/page/601/mode/1up (accessed 8 March 2022).
113 Lemkin, “Turkish Massacre of Armenians – Book-Length Manuscript, undated,” 74 in Raphael Lemkin Collection (P-154), Center for Jewish History, New York: https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE503541 (accessed 16 March 2022); Henry Morgenthau in “Aid for the Armenians” in The New Armenia. A Semi-Monthly Periodical, vol. VIII, no. 13, June 1, 1916, 205 referring to “Evangeline”: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hnznj8&view=1up&seq=213 (accessed 16 July 2024); Henry Morgenthau, I Was Sent to Athens, In Collaboration with French Strother, Illustrations from Photographs (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran and Company, Inc., 1929), 52 referring to “Longfellow's ‘Evangeline’”: https://archive.org/details/iwassenttoathens00morg/page/52/mode/1up (accessed 18 July 2024); also Lemkin, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1947): 146 note 1 referring to “instructions from Mr. Lansing to Ambassador Morgenthau.”
114 On other Acadian-Armenian comparisons in interwar United-States, see Yael Schacher, “Exceptions to Exclusion: A Prehistory of Asylum in the United States, 1880-1980” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2015), 317–25: https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/26718760 (accessed 31 May 2024).
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Richard LeBlanc
Richard LeBlanc, After completing my PhD in Romance Studies at Cornell University in 2022, I am currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Institut d’études acadiennes of the Université de Moncton through the Université de Saint-Boniface’s Partnership Project Trois siècles de migrations francophones en Amérique du Nord (1640-1940). For the research and writing of this paper, I benefited from the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Cornell University, and the Partnership Project Trois siècles de migrations francohpones en Amérique du Nord (1640-1940).