Men in the Saddle and Women on Wheels: The Transport Revolution in the Tudor and Stuart Courts

Abstract

The transport revolution of the sixteenth century consisted in part of the adoption of four-wheeled transport for private and commercial purposes, and also in the social change that allowed men to ride in carriages rather than on horseback. The coach appeared as a general European phenomenon from the 1550s, but did not immediately represent the adoption of any technological change over its predecessors; by the early seventeenth century, richly decorated high-status vehicles had become a common sight, as had the urban traffic jam. These changes are exemplified in the extensive records of the production and decoration of coaches for the courts of Queen Elizabeth and James I, with the use of the high-status coach for courtly gifts and diplomatic presents. While Henry VIII may have used the carriage only very rarely, his daughter Elizabeth not only delighted in the creation of very expensively fitted coaches, but also continued to ride throughout her life. This era saw the development of coach etiquette for the particular situation of a travelling interior space (with a public face) used by both sexes, and the development of formal processional use (with occupied or empty coaches representing their owners), while the high status male rider continued as a phenomenon into the twentieth century.

Notes

1 Exceptions are László Tarr, The History of the Carriage (London and Budapest, 1969) (translated from Hungarian) and Stuart Piggott, Wagon Chariot and Carriage, Symbol and Status in the History of Transport (London, 1992). More recent works include Dorian Gerhold, Carriers and Coachmasters. Trade and Travel before the Turnpikes (Chichester, 2005); important studies by Peter Edwards and Arthur MacGregor on horses and related topics are referred to below.

2 Rudolf H. Wackernagel, Wittelsbach State and Ceremonial Carriages: Coaches, Sledges and Sedan Chairs in the Marstallmuseum Schloss Nymphenburg (Stuttgart, 2002), and important earlier studies: Der Französische Krönungswagen von 1696-1825 (Berlin, 1966); ‘Zur Geschichte der Kutsche bis zum ende des 17. Jahrhunderts’, in W. Treue (ed.), Achse, Rad und Wagen (Göttingen, 1986 edn), pp. 197-235; and ‘Festwagen’ article in Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, vol. 8 (Munich, 1983), cols 368-9.

3 Daniel Roche and Daniel Reytier (eds), Les Écuries Royales du XVI^e au XVIII^e siècle (Versailles, 1998); and by the same editors, Voitures, chevaux et attelages du XVI^e au XIX^e siècle (Versailles, 2000)

4 Works by Silvana Bessone and others referred to below.

5 Catherine Rommellaere, Voitures & Carrossiers aux xviii^e et xix^e siècle. La Belgique face à la France et à l’Angleterre (Brussels, 2004).

6 Eduardo Galán Domingo (ed.), Historia del Caruaje en España (Madrid, 2005).

7 Alejandro López Alvarez, Poder, lujo y conflicto en la corte de los Austrias: coches, carrozas y sillas de mano, 1550–1700 (Madrid, 2007).

8 ‘Medieval Carriages and the Origins of the Coach: The Archaeology of the European Transport Revolution’ (in preparation); ‘Les origines du coche’, in Roche and Reytier (eds), Voitures, chevaux et attelages, pp. 75-83; ‘Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches: The Wardrobe on Wheels’, Antiquaries Journal, LXXXIII (2003), pp. 311-67; ‘From Carriage to Coach, What Happened?’, in R. Bork and A. Kann (eds), The Art, Science, and Technology of Medieval Travel, AVISTA Studies in the History of Medieval Technology, Science, and Art, vol. 6 (Ashgate, 2008), pp. 41-53; ‘Horse and Coach in the Royal Stables of Queen Elizabeth and James I’, in Juan Aranda Doncel and José Martínez Millán (eds) Las Caballerizas reales y el Mundo del Caballo (Cordoba, 2016), pp. 297-327 (published online: http://iulce.es/tienda/colecciones/las-caballerizas-reales-y-el-mundo-del-caballo/).

9 Adam Frans van der Meulen (1632–1590), ‘The Entry of Louis XIV and Marie Thérèse into Douai, 30 August 1667’, and ‘The Entry of Louis XIV and Marie Thérèse into Arras (Château de Versailles): see Isabelle Richefort, Adam-François Van der Meulen (Rennes, 2004), cat. nos 52 and 105; James William Glass (1825–1855), ‘His Last Return from Duty’ (Wellington Collection, Apsley House, WM.1562-1948); ‘Funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901’ (British Pathé film).

10 Without entering into a lengthy discussion of vocabulary, it can be said that there is a large group of words in English/French: car, carre, char, chaier, chariot, charett which can mean a variety of things, depending on their context.

11 B.F. Byerley and C.R. Byerley, Records of the Wardrobe and Household, 1285–1286 (London, 1977); Records of the Wardrobe and Household, 1286–1289 (London, 1986), passim.

12 British Library [hereafter BL], Ms Add. 7965, fol. 151 (Wardrobe Account for 25 Ed. I, November 1296–97), quoted in Frédérique Lachaud, ‘Furs, Textiles and Liveries: A Study of the Material Culture of the Court of Edward I (1272–1307)’ (Oxford DPhil. thesis, 1992), p. 174 (reference kindly provided by John Steane).

13 E.W. Safford, ‘An Account of the Expenses of Eleanor, Sister of Edward III, on the Occasion of her Marriage to Reynald, Count of Guelders’, Archaeologia, LXXVII (1928), pp. 114-15.

14 The National Archives, Public Record Office [hereafter PRO], E101/393/4, fols 13-13v.

15 Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous, IV (1377–88) (London, 1916), p. 13, no 16.

16 Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous, III (1348–77) (London, 1916), p. 176, no 469; Oxford English Dictionary, quoting BL, Ms Stowe 1047; V.H. Galbraith, The Anonimalle Chronicle 1333–1381 (Manchester, 1927), pp. 144 and 195.

17 Survey of London by John Stow (London, 1908) vol. I, pp. 83-4; see J. Munby, ‘From Whirlecole to the Worlds on Wheels: Episodes in the early History of London Transport’, Jonathan Cotton et al. (eds), ‘Hidden Histories and Records of Antiquity’: Essays on Saxon and Medieval London for John Clark, Curator Emeritus, Museum of London, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society Special Paper 17 (2014), pp. 152-9

18 L.G. Wickham Legg, English Coronation Records (London, 1901), pp. 220-39; A.F. Sutton and P.W. Hammond, The Coronation of Richard III. The Extant Documents (Gloucester, 1983), pp. 214-15.

19 Tarr, History of the Carriage, p. 185, quoting John Archdeacon of Küküllö (Kokel); J. Ernst, Old Hungarian Coaches (Budapest, 1989), p. 15, quoting a letter written by Louis on 6 July 1372 referring to an old woman post ipsam curram pendentem t[r]ansmittere.

20 M.N. Boyer, ‘Mediaeval Suspended Carriages’, Speculum, XXXIV,3 (1959), pp. 359-66, for many references to the French sources. And see also her ‘Medieval Pivoted Axles’, Technology and Culture, I (1959–60), pp. 128-38.

21 Ibid., p. 360; J.H. Markland, ‘Some Remarks on the Early Use of Carriages in England, and on the Modes of Travelling Adopted by our Ancestors’, Archaeologia, XX (1825), p. 452.

22 Illustrated in Tarr, History of the Carriage, figures 224–43, plates. xliv-v; C. Rommelaere, ‘L'attelage médiéval … .’, in G. Raepsaet and C. Rommelaere, Brancards et transport attelé entre Seine et Rhin de l’Antiquité au Moyen Age (Treignes, 1995), pp. 75-111.

23 Berlin State Library, Ms Rehdiger 1 (Dep. Breslau), often reproduced, for example, in J. Backhouse, The Luttrell Psalter (London, 1989); M. Camille, Mirror in Parchment: Luttrell Psalter and the Making of Medieval England (Chicago, 1998); M.P. Brown, The World of the Luttrell Psalter (London, 2006).

24 Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms Rheinau XV, fol. 54; Boyer, ‘Mediaeval Suspended Carriages’, plate II; Tarr, History of the Carriage, plate xliv.

25 Viator [Jean Pélerin], De artificiali perspectiva (Toul, 1505), illus. of ‘Carreta Pelegrina’; reproduced in D. Decker and W. Treue, Achse Rad und Wagen (Göttingen, 1986 edn), p. 195; there are also various modern reprints of the 1505 and 1509 editions (New York, 1973; Paris, 1978).

26 Boyer, ‘Mediaeval Suspended Carriages’, plate I

27 Illustrated in Tarr, History of the Carriage, plate xlvii; Wackernagel, ‘Geschichte der Kutsche’, p. 200; and Munby, ‘Les origines’, p. 75.

28 That is, the brass frame uses the joinery technique of a pegged mortice and tenon.

29 J. Munby, ‘Richard Beauchamp’s Funeral Car’, Journal of the British Archaeological Association clv (2002), pp. 278-87.

30 Anne McGee Morganstern, Gothic Tombs of Kinship in France, the Low Countries and England (University Park, PA, 2000), pp. 133-41.

31 H. Kreisel, Prunkwagen und Schlitten (Leipzig, 1927), tables 2a/b and 4a; other views are in Wackernagel, ‘Geschichte der Kutsche’, p. 204, and Tarr, History of the Carriage, plate L.

32 Count Giovanni Gozzadini, ‘Dell’Origine e dell’Uso dei Cocchi et di due Veronesi in particolare’, pp. 1-49 (Bologna, 1862), a pre-print of its eventual publication in Atti e memorie della Regia Deputazione di Storia Patria per le provincie di Romagna, [Serie I] Anno II, Fasc. 2 (Bologna, 1866), pp. 199-249. This important although somewhat obscure publication was used by G.A. Thrupp in his History of Coaches (London & New York, 1877), and later works derived from that. The carriages are today preserved at the Villa Serego-Alighieri, Gargagnago, Sant’Ambrogio di Valpolicella, Verona.

33 This is documented by Gozzadini, ‘Dell’Origine e dell’Uso’, pp. 206 (8), 213-28 (15-30), and 248; E.C. Szentpeteri, ‘L’évolution du coche ou l’histoire d’une invention hongroise’, in Roche and Reytier (eds), Voitures, chevaux et attelages, pp. 85-7. See also my ‘Carriage to Coach’ paper, and comments by Richard W. Bulliet, The Wheel. Inventions and Reinventions (Columbia, 2016), Chapter 8 ‘The Carriage Revolution’.

34 J. Schemel, ‘Gutschiwagen’, 1568; Tarr, History of the Carriage, plate LII; and Wackernagel, ‘Geschichte der Kutsche’, p. 209.

35 Illustrated in Wackernagel, ‘Geschichte der Kutsche’, p. 207; Munby, ‘Les origines’, p. 78; Axel Gelbhaar, ‘Die Kobelwagen, Karossen und Kutschen im Besitz der Kunstammlungen der Veste Coburg’, in Achse, Rad und Wagen, no 7 (1999), pp. 79-89.

36 Kreisel, Prunkwagen und Schlitten called it ‘erweiterter kobeltypus’, the extended kobelwagen (the kobel is the round-topped medieval carriage); and Gelbhaar, ‘Kobelwagen, Karossen und Kutschen’, called it a kobelwagen, which seems unlikely given its radical difference from the medieval kobels as described above. Hoefnagel’s drawing is British Museum, Prints & Drawings, 1943-10-9-35, preparatory for G. Braun and F. Hogenburg’s atlas, Civitates Orbis Terrarum (Book V, 1597), plate 1 (with identical title and inscription, but ‘1582’ rather than ‘1568’); reproduced in L. Stainton, British Landscape Watercolours, 1600–1860 (London, 1985), no 1, plate 1; and Munby, ‘Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches’.

37 Munby, ‘From Whirlecole to the Worlds on Wheels’, pp. 152-9.

38 John Stow (continued by Edmond Howes), Annales of England (1615 folio edition), p. 866; this does not occur in Stow’s quarto edition of 1601.

39 The status of the Wardrobe was ambiguous and changed over time: the Great Wardrobe was ‘often treated as part of the Lord Chamberlain’s administration even though it was separately financed’, and also ‘received orders via Lord Chamberlain’s warrant’; in 1782 the Great Wardrobe was abolished ‘and part of its duties merged in the Lord Chamberlain’s Department’ (and thus united its earlier records with those of the Chamberlain): R.O. Bucholz, Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 11 (Revised), Court Officers, 1660–1837 (London, 2006), introduction (British History Online: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/office-holders/vol11/xx-xxxvii [accessed: 22 November 2014]).

40 The warrants for Queen Elizabeth’s reign are in PRO, LC.5/32 to 37.

41 The accounts are in PRO, LC.9/57 to 93; where there are gaps in these declared accounts they may be filled by the duplicate accounts made for the Audit Office, PRO, AO.3/1106 to 1114.

42 PRO, E.407/32; PRO, E.101/107/33 (8 ms, 31 & 32 Elizabeth).

43 Maria Hayward, The Great Wardrobe Accounts of Henry VII and Henry VIII, London Record Society 47 (2012), pp. 185-8 (list), 137-48 (account, PRO, E.101/417/4, fols 35-40). For earlier records (including some in PRO C47, Chancery Miscellanea), see List of Documents Relating to the Household and Wardrobe, John to Edward I (PRO Handbooks 7, 1964).

44 Janet Arnold, Queen Elizabeth’s Wardrobe Unlock’d (Leeds, 1988).

45 Munby, ‘Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches’, pp. 311-67.

46 PRO, LC.9/93 to 98 and AO.3/1115 to 1119 (James I); and LC.9/99 to 103 and AO.3/1120 to 1121 (Charles I). For a fuller account, see Munby, ‘Horse and Coach in the Royal Stables’.

47 Arthur MacGregor, ‘Horsegear, Vehicles and Stable Equipment at the Stuart Court: A Documentary Archaeology’, Archaeological Journal, 153 (1996), pp. 148-200; the source for these is PRO, LC.5/78.

48 The accounts for these warrants are not in the Wardrobe series (PRO, LC.9) but in the Audit Office duplicate accounts for 1626–30 (PRO, AO.3/1119 and 3/1120), originating from later warrants for payment, dated 1635–36.

49 Munby, ‘Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches’, prints summaries of all the warrants and accounts.

50 Peter Edwards, The Horse Trade in Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge, 1988), p. 42; C.M. Prior, The Royal Studs of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1935); Arthur MacGregor, ‘Strategies for Improving English Horses’, in Anthropozoologica, 29 (1999), pp. 65-73; idem, ‘The Royal Stables: A Seventeenth-Century Perspective’, Antiquaries Journal, 76 (1996), pp. 181-200; idem, ‘The Household out of Doors: The Stuart Court and the Animal Kingdom’, in Eveline Cruickshanks (ed.), The Stuart Courts (Stroud, 2000), pp. 94-5.

51 For numbers of horses, see Munby, ‘Horse and Coach in the Royal Stables’, pp. 303-05; MacGregor, ‘The Royal Stables’, pp. 189-91; D. Starkey and P. Ward (eds), The Inventory of Henry VIII: The Transcript, Society of Antiquaries Research Report 56 (1988), pp. 163-5.

52 Peter Edwards ‘Les écuries des monarcques anglais aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles’, in Roche and Reytier, (eds) Les Écuries Royales; MacGregor, ‘The Royal Stables’, pp. 181-200. NB: the figures for Charles I are deduced from wardrobe warrants printed in MacGregor, ‘Horsegear, Vehicles and Stable Equipment’, pp. 148-200.

53 The Royal Mews at Buckingham Palace, official guidebook (2011); H.M. Colvin et al., History of the King’s Works V, 1660–1782 (London, 1976), pp. 207-13, plan figure 12; J.M. Crook and M.H. Port, History of the King’s Works VI, 1782–1851 (London, 1973), pp. 303-07.

54 Giles Worsley, The British Stable: An Architectural and Social History (New Haven, 2004), pp. 21-3; Simon Thurley, Hampton Court. A Social and Architectural History (New Haven, 2003), p. 85; H.M. Colvin et al., History of the King’s Works III, 1485–1660 (Part I) (London, 1975), pp. 79-80. For accounts of works on the Queen’s stables, 1577–94, see PRO, E.351/3340 to 3348.

55 Reproduced in Teresa Żurawska, Paradne pojazdy w Polsce XVI–XVIII wieku (Krakow, 1989), loose plates I; the best colour reproduction of the coaches is in Silvana Bessone, National Coach Museum, Lisbon (Lisbon, 1993), pp. 112, 116-17; exhibition catalogue entry in J.K. Ostrowski, Land of the Winged Horsemen. Art in Poland, 1572–1764 (Alexandria, VA, 1999), no 1, pp. 103-05.

56 June Schlueter, ‘Hieronymus Tielsch in England, c.1603’ (draft paper, courtesy of the author); ‘Michael van Meer’s Album Amicorum, with Illustrations of London, 1614-15’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 69.2 (2006), pp. 301-13; illustrated in Munby, ‘From Whirlecole to the Worlds on Wheels’. For Van Meer, see June Schlueter, The Album Amicorum and the London of Shakespeare’s Time (London, 2011).

57 Martin Royalton-Kisch, Adriaen van de Venne’s Album (London, 1988).

58 C.L. Kingsford (ed.) A Survey of London by John Stow (London, 1908), vol. I, p. 84.

59 John Taylor, The World runnes on Wheeles: Or Oddes, betwixt Carts and Coaches (London, 1623); John Aubrey, ‘Brief Life’ of Sir Philip Sydney, and the ‘Country Revel’, in A. Clark (ed.), Aubrey’s Brief Lives 1669–1696 (Oxford, 1898), vol. II, pp. 247, 249, 267; also John Aubrey (A. Powell, ed.), Brief Lives and Other Selected Writings (London, 1949), p. 10; from the ‘Country Revel’, Bodleian Library, Ms Aubrey 21.

60 Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1598–1601 (London, 1856–72), p. 156 (January 1599).

61 A note of gifts to the Sultan can be found in E.A. Jones, ‘Old English Plate in Constantinople’, Country Life, XLV (29 March 1919), p. 358; for an early account of the story of Dallam, see Stanley Mayes, An Organ for the Sultan (London, 1956), a reference I owe to the kindness of Tim Tatton-Brown; for a properly scholarly treatment, see Gerald MacLean, The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire (Basingstoke, 2004), and for a modernization of the text, John Mole, The Sultan’s Organ: The Diary of Thomas Dallam 1599 (London, 2012).

62 S.A. Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, in S.M. Stern, Documents from Islamic Chanceries, Oriental Studies 3 (Oxford, 1965), pp. 119-57.

63 Diary of Thomas Dallam, in J.D. Bent (ed.), Early Voyages and Travels in the Levant, Hakluyt Society 87 (1893), p. 63.

64 Henry Lello to Cecil, PRO, SP 97/4, fol. 49, quoted in Skilliter ‘Three Letters’, p.150 [modernised].

65 Skilliter, ‘Three Letters’, pp. 151, 153.

66 PRO, SP 102/4, fols 5 and 19, edited by Skilliter ‘Three Letters’, as documents II & III.

67 Lyubov Kirillova, Royal Carriages, Treasures of the Armoury (Moscow, 2000); Munby, ‘The Moscow Coach: “A rich chariot, one parcel of the great present”’, in Olga Dmitrieva and Tessa Murdoch, Treasures of the Royal Courts. Tudors, Stuarts & the Russian Tsars, V&A exhibition catalogue (London, 2013), pp. 158-65; Munby, ‘Thomas Smith’s “rich Chariot” of 1604 and the English Coach in the Kremlin’, in E. Volodarskaya and J. Roberts, Emerging Empires: England and Muscovy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Moscow & London, 2014), pp. 40-45.

68 Piggott, Wagon Chariot and Carriage, pp. 157-9, quoting M. Strachan, Sir Thomas Roe 1581–1644: A Life (Salisbury, 1989); see also Sir William Foster (ed.) The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India 1615–19: As Narrated in His Journal and Correspondence (revised edn, Oxford, 1926) — originally issued by Hakluyt Society, 1899, and reprinted in Delhi, 1990.

69 British Museum, Oriental Department, 1933-6-10-01, reprinted in P. Barber, Diplomacy: The World of the Honest Spy (London, 1979), no 58, plate V.

70 BL, Ms. Add. 6115, fol. 60, Roe to East India Company, 24 November 1615, quoted in Foster, Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe, p. 76.

71 ‘Dependent Sub-Departments: Ceremonies 1660–1837’, R.O. Bucholz, Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 11 (revised): Court Officers, 1660–1837 (2006), pp. 112-14 (British History Online: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=43790 [accessed: 22 November 2014]).

72 1603–27: Sir Lewes Lewkenor (c.1560–1627); 1627–41: Sir John Finet (1570/1–1641); 1641–86: Sir Charles Cotterell (1615–1701). All have entries in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. There are some accounts from Lewkenor’s time of the costs of hiring coaches for ambassadors: BL, Ms. Add. 38854, fols 20-22 (for 1626–27); and for later Cottrell and Cottrell-Dormer papers (1660–1811), see the National Archives, Master of Ceremonies, PRO, LC.5/1-5.

73 Finetti Philoxenis: Som choice observations of Sr. John Finett Knight, and Master of the Ceremonies to the two last Kings, Touching the Reception, and Precedence, the Treatment and Audience, the Puntillios and Contests of Forren Ambassadors in England (London, 1656).

74 Albert J. Loomie (ed.), Ceremonies of Charles I. The Notebooks of John Finet Master of Ceremonies, 1628–41 (New York, 1987).

75 For a later dispute on greeting at the door or on the stairs between the Venetian, French and Spanish ambassadors, see R.C. Latham and W. Matthews (eds), Diary of Samuel Pepys, IX, 1668–69 (London, 1976), p. 320; and the Venetian account in the Calendar of State Papers, Venetian, 1666–68 (London, 1935), no 359, pp. 278-95 (http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=90231 [accessed 22 November 2014]).

76 Loomie, Ceremonies of Charles I, pp. 48-9, 53, 54, 77.

77 John Hunt, ‘Carriages, Violence, and Masculinity in Early Modern Rome’, I Tatti: Studies in the Italian Renaissance, 17 (2014), pp. 175-96; ‘The Ceremonial Possession of a City: Ambassadors and their Carriages in Early Modern Rome’, Royal Studies Journal, vol. 3, no 2 (2016), pp. 69-89.

78 Samuel Pepys, Diary, 30 September 1661; see Anna Keay, The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power (London, 2008), 105-06.

79 H.V. Livermore, A History of Portugal (Cambridge, 1947), p. 277; J.M.P. Botto, Promptuario analytico dos carros nobres da Casa Real Portuguesa e das carruagens de gala (Lisbon, 1909); Luis Keil, Catalogo do Museu Nacional dos Coches (Lisbon, 1943); Bessone, National Coach Museum, Lisbon.

80 J.B. Lavanha, Viagem da Catholica Real Magestade del Rey D. Filipe II N.S. ao Reyno de Portvgal e rellaçao do solene recebimento que nelle se lhe fez S. Magestade (Madrid 1622); Alejandro Lόpez Álvarez, Poder, lujo y conflicto en la corte de los Austrias. Coches, carrozas y sillas de mano 1550-1700 (Madrid, 2007), p. 89.

81 Wackernagel, Wittelsbach I, p. 22, figure 13 (col.).

82 Gerard Ter Borch (1617–1681) and Gerard van der Horst (1581–1629), The Entry of Adriaen Pauw in Münster, c.1646, Landesmuseum, Münster [N10]. J. Jobé, Au temps des cochers (Paris, 1976), pp. 44-5 (b/w); Wackernagel, Wittelsbach I, p. 23, figure 14 (col.).

83 See castle website: http://www.castle.ckrumlov.cz/docs/en/zamek_3nadvori_kocar.xml

84 J.M. Wright, An Account of His Excellence, Roger Earl of Castlemaine’s embassy from His Sacred Majesty James II^d, King of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, &c. to His Holiness Innocent XI (London, 1688).

85 Silvana Bessone, National Coach Museum, Lisbon; fully illustrated in Bessone (ed.), Embaixada de D. Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses Marquês de Fontes enviada por D. João V ao Papa Clemente XI. Roma 8 de Julho de 1716 (Lisbon, 1996).

86 Exhibited in Washington, Jay Levenson, The Age of the Baroque in Portugal (New Haven, 1993).

87 The somewhat startling restoration is recorded in Bessone et al, O Coche dos Oceanos Conservação e Restauro (Lisbon, 1998).

88 Helen Jacobsen, Luxury and Power: The Material World of the Stuart Diplomat 1660–1714 (Oxford, 2012), pp. 29-35, 108-11.

89 The Memoirs of Ann, Lady Fanshawe, wife of the Right Honble. Sir Richard Fanshawe, Bart., 1600–72, H.C. Fanshawe (ed.) (London, 1907).

90 Latham and Matthews, eds, Diary of Samuel Pepys, IX, 1668–69, passim and 18 March 1669.

91 Susan E. Whyman, Sociability and Power in Late-Stuart England: The Cultural Worlds of the Verneys, 1660–1720 (Oxford, 1999), chapter 4: ‘London Modes of Sociability: The Visit and the Coach’, pp. 87ff.

92 The Rules of Civility; Or, Certain Ways of Deportment Observed in France (London, third edn, 1675). Compare Lady Trowbridge, Book of Etiquette (London, 1927), who allowed the wearing of hats in a hotel lift, perceived as an external space.

93 Pepys Diary, 18 November 1668; David Hayton, ‘Moral Reform and Country Politics in the Late Seventeenth-Century House of Commons’, Past & Present, vol. 128 (August 1990), pp. 48–89; John Taylor, The World runnes on Wheeles: Or Oddes, betwixt Carts and Coaches (London, 1623).

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Julian Munby

Julian Munby

Julian Munby, FSA, is Head of Buildings Archaeology at Oxford Archaeology. His interest in timber construction prompted an enquiry into the form and character of medieval carriages that has led to a more general study on the origins of the coach, based on examination of early survivals from across Europe. His most recent study has been the English coach in the Kremlin, presented by the London Muscovy Company in 1604. He has also carried out extensive investigations in the records of the royal stables in the Tudor and Stuart wardrobe accounts, and on the occurrence of early coaches in art and literature. A general publication is now in preparation.