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Abstract
Indonesia has approximately 240 million people, and more than 85% of the population are Muslims. Whilst incidents of religious intolerance have frequently been reported in the mass media, political Islam in Indonesia, represented by Islamic political parties, seems to have failed to gain popular support. Against this conflicting standing of Islam and Islamic organizations in Indonesia, this study focuses on Muslim religiosity and perceptions of the role of Islam in contemporary Indonesia. Based on our survey of 1500 Muslims in Indonesia in 2010, and case studies in regional Indonesia, this paper shows that, due to sociocultural change in regional Indonesia, and the diffusion of religious authority through media use, Indonesian Muslims are becoming less political Islamists, and more sociocultural Islamists who are attempting to advocate Islamic morality. This trend is in line with scholarly observations of post-Islamism prevalent in other parts of the Muslim world.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the University of New South Wales Canberra at Australian Defence Force Academy for research support for this project. We also appreciate feedback and discussions for our draft at the Asia Pacific Seminar Series (http://hass.unsw.adfa.edu.au/apss/).
Notes
1. Gillespie, “Current Issues in Indonesian Islam,” 202–40.
2. Aljazeera, “Indonesian Film Stirs Religious Controversy.” http://english.aljazeera.net/video/asia-pacific/2011/09/20119745651590503.html
3. Hadiz, “Political Islam in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia.”
4. Tomsa, “Moderating Islamism in Indonesia,” 1–13; Bubalo, Fealy and Mason, “Zealous Democrats”; and Okamoto, “The Rise of the ‘Realistic’ Islamist Party,” 219–54.
5. For example, see Roy, Globalized Islam; Muzaffari, “What Is Islamism,” 17–33.
6. Göle, “Islam in Public,” 173–90; Ismail, “Islamism, Re-Islamization and the Fashioning of Muslim Selves,” 1–21.
7. For recent studies on Islamic parties and Islamist groups in Indonesia, see Hamayotsu, “The End of Political Islam?” 133–59; Lim, “Radical Islamism in Indonesia,” 213–31.
8. For discussions on the change of various Islamic authority, see Azra, Van Dijk, and Kaptein, Varieties of Religious Authorities; Rasmussen, Women, the Recited Qur'an.
9. Smith-Hefner, “Javanese Women and Veil,” 389–420.
10. The survey entitled Islamization of Public Sphere: Identity and the Future of Democracy in Indonesia. The survey result on the role of Islam in the public sphere in Indonesia has been published as Islam di Ruang Publik: Politik Identitas dan Masa Depan Demokrasi di Indonesia, edited by Noorhaidi Hasan and Irfan Abubakar (Jakarta: Center for the Study of Religion and Culture, 2011). The focus of the previous publication was at the national level and differentiates itself from this current focus.
11. West Java is an area where a significant number of religious intolerance and violence cases took place. For example, 21 cases from 39 reported incidents in the year report took place in West Java, see Bagir et al., Laporan Tahunan Kehidupan.
12. Salim and Sila, Serambi Mekah Yang Berubah; Aspinall, “From Islamism to Nationalism in Aceh,” 245–63; Millalos, “Muslim Veil as Politics,” 289–301.
13. Buehler, “The Rise of Shari'a By-Laws in Indonesian,” 255–85; Juhannis, “The Struggle for Formalist Islam in South Sulawesi.”
14. These terms refer to a general meeting of study groups. Pengajian is from the word ‘ngaji’, literally refers to learn the Qur'an. Majlis taklim is from Arabic words, literally means a place for learning.
15. Hirschkind, The Ethical Soundscape.
16. Watson, “Islamic Books and Their Publishers,” 177–210; Feillard, “From Handling Water in a Glass,” 157–76.
17. The survey on Islamization was conducted in 2010 by the Center for the Study of Religion and Culture, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. The survey was generously funded by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation.
18. We did not include West Java province because it has similar religious characteristics with the Banten Province such as historical roots, and the presence of shariah by-laws. Banten broke off as from West Java province in 2000. Eastern part of Indonesia is represented by South Sulawesi (an area with Muslim majority), North Sulawesi (Muslim minority area with a relatively strong Christian communities), and Bali (Muslim minority area living with Hindu community).
19. We thank Andi Agung Prihatna for providing statistical consultation.
20. Muzaffari, “What Is Islamism?”
21. Khilafa Islamiya (Islamic caliphate) is a concept of Islamic governance led by a caliph who unites all Muslim countries under one political system. This concept has been supported mainly by Islamists.
22. We note that variables that may be supported by both Islamists and non-Islamists, such as agreement on wearing a headscarf, agreement for polygamous marriages and disagreement for democracy are not suitable to identify Islamist orientations.
23. Mujani and Liddle, “Politics, Islam and Public Opinion,” 109–203.
24. Mujani and Liddle, “Politics, Islam and Public Opinion.”
25. Munabari, “Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia,” 173–218.
26. Rinaldo, Pious Islam and Women's Activism in Indonesia, 291.
27. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist.
28. Krueger and Maleckova, “Seeking the Root of Terrorism.”
29. Bush, “Regional ‘Sharia’ Regulation in Indonesia,” 174–91.
30. Hefner, “Islamic Schools, Social Movements,” 57 .
31. Figures include Quraish Shihab (Muslim intellectual, former Minister of Religion), Abdurrahman Wahid (Muslim intellectual from Muslim Traditionalist background, and fourth president of Indonesia), and Abdullah Gymnastiar (founder and leader of pesantren, became the most popular preacher between 2000 and 2008) who all moderate Muslim figures. Only one per cent of the respondents sought information on Islam by listening and reading from Islamists figures through media.
32. Mamah Dedeh is one of the most popular Muslim preachers in Indonesia. Her preaching represents a moderate view of Islam.
33. Ustadz Ir. Idris Parakkasi, Msi, (one of leaders of Wahdah Islamiyah in Makassar), interview, 5 April 2012.
34. Winn, “Women's Majelis Taklim and Gendered Religious Practice.”
35. Salafi is ‘one who claims to draw his religious doctrines directly from the “Salaf al Salih”– the ancestors, the first three generations of Muslims.... Salafi claims to take his interpretation of Islamic doctrine directly from the Qur'an and the Sunna as they were understood and practised by the Salaf.’ Term salafism has become close to ‘fundamentalism’. Roy and Sfeir, The Columbia World Dictionary, 300–1.
36. KH. Arifin Asegaf (board member of MUI North Sulawesi, member of FKUB North Sulawesi), interview, 2 April 2010; Suhendro Boroma (chief editor, Manado Post), interview, April 5, 2010; Dani Panarang (chief, Department of Social and Welfare, Province of North Sulawesi), interview, April 3, 2010.
37. Ayu Asegaf (a local community leader of an Arab descent), interview March 30, 2010; Arifin Asegaf, interview.
38. Ayu Asegaf, interview; Arifin Asegaf, interview.
39. Duncan, “Unwelcome Guests,” 25–46.
40. Boroma, interview.
41. Arifin Asegaf, interview.
42. For spread of JT in Indonesia, especially Java and Papua, see Noor, “The Spread of Tablighi Jamā‘at,” 175; and Noor, “The Arrival and Spread of Tablighi Jamā‘at,” 191 (Singapore: S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2010). For female members of JT see Amrullah, “Seeking Sanctuary in ‘the Age of Disorder’,” 135–60.
43. In North Sulawesi the operations of local TV stations remain stable and TV stations from Jakarta are broadcast and viewed frequently. See Hill, “Manoeuvres in Manado,” 5–28.
44. http://biografi-biodata-profile.blogspot.com.au/2012/03/biografi-mama-dedeh-rosidah-syarifudin.html, Accessed April 10, 2013.
45. Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce.
46. Boontharm, “The Sultanate of Banten AD 1750–1808.”
47. Kartodirdjo, Peasants’ Revolt of Banten in 1888.
48. “Lokalisasi harus jadi agenda besar,” Kabar Banten, June 22, 2011.
49. Rudnyckyj, Spiritual Economies, Islam, Globalization, 53.
50. CRCS, Kontroversi Gereja di Jakarta, 79–84.
51. “Ahmadiyah: Kami Diserang,” Kompas, February 6, 2011.
52. “MUI dan Ormas Islam Dukung Perda Syariah,” Radar Banten, June 29, 2006.
53. Nashir, Gerakan Islam Syariat, 288.
54. For detailed analysis of the KPPSI, see Juhannis, “The Struggle for Formalist Islam in South Sulawesi.”
55. “Pilkada Sulsel: Lima Pasang Cagub Resmi Mendaftar,” Suara Karya, August 13, 2007.
56. Barton, Indonesia's Struggle, 57.
57. “Gubernur minta TPA dikembangkan,” Harian Ujungpandang Ekspres, July 3, 2006.
58. “Goyang Sinchan Tengah Malam Kriminalitas,” Gatra, May 8, 2006.
59. Interview with a hairdresser in Bulukumba, January 27, 2007.
60. “Goyang Sinchan Tengah Malam Kriminalitas,” Gatra, May 8, 2006.
61. Interview with a hairdresser in Bulukumba, January 27, 2007.
62. One litre of balo is sold for around Rp. 5000 and Rp. 10,000, equivalent to A$0.90-$1.5. People often drank as much as four litres at a time, according to the former head of sub-district of Ujung Loi, Bulukumba.
63. Information obtained in Bulukumba, March 2006.
64. Who these people were remains unclear, but at some state that they were the Laskar Jundullah, a military wing of the KPPSI, who conducted several “sweepings” before the New Year's celebration in 2000. “Sweeping” is a term used to refer to violent actions or intimidation taken by militant Muslims. Under the pretext of upholding morality and Islamic values, they attack restaurants and bars that open during the fasting month. They also attack hotels that may facilitate illicit sexual relations. Occasionally they attack or intimidate foreigners who are regarded as against Islam. Sweeping is often carried out by radical Islamic organizations.
65. Interview with Saleh Tajuddin, an academic in the State Islamic University, UIN Makassar, January 2007.
66. Barzanji is a type of praising (shalawat) for the prophet, read by people in religious gathering, usually after reading the recitation of QS. Yasin or before. It is written as poems.
67. Sakai, “Ethical Self-Improvement in Everyday Life.”
68. Azra, “Globalization of Indonesian Muslim Discourse,” 31–50.
69. See Soares and Osella, “Islam, Politics, Anthropology,” S1–S23 for discussions of ways of being Muslim; Sakai, “Introduction for Islamic Propagation,” 1–7, for an example of Indonesian Islamic practices and propagation as ways of life.