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Abstract
This article reviews Korea’s multicultural past, while also tracing the evolution of the myth of ethnic Korean homogeneity via the Tan’gun myth, whose earliest extant record dates from the thirteenth century. It highlights how the myth was recalibrated in the twentieth century in the face of Japanese cultural imperialism, and used to promote a nationalist, homogenous Korean identity. By exploring past intercultural exchanges and developments, this article also illustrates how this modern ‘homogenous’ identity has been misconstructed by both North and South Korea. This is now especially anachronistic for contemporary South Korea, which is fast becoming multiracial and multicultural, but where biracial people are often discriminated against. Finally, I argue that by deconstructing the Tan’gun myth, one discovers that it already inherently possesses the potential to resolve the problematic nationalistic myth of ethnic homogeneity in a growing multiracial society, which still, in the twenty-first century, emphasises racial ‘purity’.
Notes
1. Weber, Economy and Society, 389.
2. Han, “The Archaeology of the Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State”, 9, 13. For an English translation of the oldest extant version of the Tan’gun myth, see Grayson, Korea: A Religious History, 240. In Myths and Legends from Korea (24–58) Grayson also provides translations of the four earliest recorded versions of the myth, two dating from the thirteenth century and two dating from the fifteenth century, as well as a detailed analysis. He highlights the Buddhist and Confucian terms used in these different accounts depending on the author, as well as illustrating their significance, written during periods of political turmoil.
3. Ahn, “Transforming Korea into a multicultural society”, 103.
4. Shin, Ethnic Korean Nationalism.
5. Ibid., Chapter 1.
6. Shin, Freda and Yi, “Ethnic nationalism in divided Korea”, 470, 472.
7. Already the text in which the myth appears highlights the significance of ‘Three Ancient Kingdoms’ – there is no identification of a homogenous race or state/culture.
8. For an English translation of the Samguk Yusa, see Ilyon, Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea, trans. Ha tae-Hung. For a discussion on its veracity, see Mc Bride, “Is the Samguk Yusa reliable?” 163–189. Mc Bride concludes that ‘we cannot verify whether the information contained in passages copied from earlier sources is “historically” accurate, according to our modern definition of what constitutes historical fact. There is not enough corroborating evidence, and even Iryŏn recognizes that much of his material is didactic and devotional in nature’ (182).
9. Grayson, “Foundation Myths, Sacred Sites and Ritual”, 311.
10. Shim, “A New understanding of Kija Chosŏn”, 271–305.
11. For a translation of these myths and an analysis, see Grayson, Korea: A Religious History, 239–248.
12. For an overview of the Samguk Sagi, see: Shultz, “An Introduction to the Samguk sagi”, 1–13.
13. For an overview of the Three Kingdoms, see Lee, “Three Kingdoms and Their Civilization”.
14. Grayson, Korea: A Religious History, 33–36.
15. Ibid., 22.
16. For an overview of the Koryŏ period, see Nahm, A History of the Korean People, 59–93; Eckert et al., Korea Old and New, 68–94.
17. Lee and De Bary, Sources of Korean Tradition, 154–156, here 155.
18. Ibid., 154.
19. Shim, “A New Understanding of Kija Chosŏn”, 277–278.
20. See, James Hoyt (trans.), Songs of the Dragon Flying to Heaven. Ironically, this first text was accompanied with a complete Chinese translation and Chinese commentary, intensifying the divide and discrimination between the educated Confucian elite and the uneducated masses.
21. Xu, “That Glorious Ancient History of Our Nation”. See also Xu, “Reconstructing Ancient History”, where she discusses Tan’gun minjok chuŭi or Tan’gun nationalism, described as a very recent phenomenon.
22. Ibid., 138.
23. Often Western missionaries tried to draw attention to Korea’s plight vis-à-vis the Japanese in texts such as Hulbert’s, The Passing of Korea (1906), also highlighting how it was the Koreans who had contributed so much to Japan’s own culture and identity.
24. Caprio, Japanese Assimilation Policies.
25. Hendry and Underdown, Anthropology, 20–21.
26. For an overview of Ch’oe’s nationalist historiography and his reinterpretation of the Tan’gun myth, see Allen, “Northeast Asia Centered Around Korea”, 787–806. Ch’oe’s studies on Tan’gun also led others to do the same, especially, Sin Ch’aeho (1880–1936) whose Doksa Sillon (독사신론; New Reading of History) also posited Tan’gun as the original leader of the Koreans. Sin also emphasised Korea’s ancient control of Manchuria, see Schmid, “Rediscovering Manchuria”.
27. Schmidt, Korea Between Empires, 171–198.
28. Shin, Modern Korean History and Nationalism, 214.
29. Hyung & Tangherlini, Nationalism and the construction of Korean Identity, 1–72. Schmidt, Korea Between Empires, 64–71 and 257–260.
30. Breen, The Koreans, 105. ‘Uri’ in this context means ‘our’ in Korean. With the loss of the ‘nation’ the move for preservation of a unique Korean ‘identity’ became a necessity, undoubtedly contributing to the Korean preference of emphasising ‘our country’ (uri nara, 우리나라), and ‘our country’s language’ (uri nara-mal, 우리나라말) – reinforcing a history that was very different from and independent of Japan, but one that was under threat.
31. In Reinventing Japan (Citation2004), Ian Buruma also notes how Japan had set about reconstructing its own national identity, using recourse to its own myths and key figures from its past, with a newly constructed Shinto movement.
32. For a discussion on the Comfort Women issue, see Soh, The Comfort Women.
33. This contradicts more essentialist and nationalist interpretations, such as that of Ryu, “On the Origins of Korean Thought” who argues that, ‘We can say that the love of manners and the dislike of fighting are ethical expressions of the gentle manner of Korean nature’.
34. Han, “The Archaeology of the Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State”, 25.
35. See, Yim, “Cultural Identity and Cultural Policy”, 43–44; Han, “The Archaeology of the Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State”, 25–26; Kim and Park, “Nationalism, Confucianism, work ethic and industrialization”, 42.
36. To read the 1962 law’s amended version of 2007, see http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/details.jsp?id=12943 [accessed on 28 April 2015].
37. French, North Korea: The Paranoid Peninsula.
38. Lankov, The Real North Korea.
39. Ch’oe, “Reinterpreting Traditional History in North Korea”. A huge mausoleum to Tan’gun has been erected outside Pyongyang, which, according to North Korean reports, contains the remains of Tan’gun and his wife, which were reportedly uncovered in 1993. See ‘Time honoured Pyongyang’ article dated 2 June 2006 on the DPRK’s Korean Central News Agency website, available at: http://www.kcna.co.jp/index-e.htm (9 November 2014).
40. See: http://www.ntd.tv/en/news/world/asia-pacific/20140219/97899-s-korea-minister-chides-youth-indifference-to-unification.html [accessed on 9 November 2014].
41. Kang, “Multicultural education and the rights”.
42. Watson, “Multiculturalism in South Korea”.
43. Ahn, “Transforming Korea into a multicultural society”.
44. Chung and Yoo, “Using the Multicultural Family Support Centers”.
45. Yoon, “Is multiculturalism valid for South Korea”.
46. Han, “The Archaeology of the Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State”.
47. Lee, “Mixed Race Peoples in the Korean National Imaginary and Family”.
48. Ward described how he was ‘trying to shed a light on that dark side [of Korean culture] and make Korea a better place than it already is’. See, Branch, “Ward Helps Biracial Youths”.
49. Han, “The Archaeology of the Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State”, 9.
50. Lee, “Anti-discrimination law”.
51. Kang, “Multicultural education and the rights”.
52. Park, “Myth of Pure-Blood Nationalism Blocks Multi-Ethnic Society”.
53. Hong, “Multicultural education in Korea”.
54. Kang, “Multicultural education and the rights”, 289.
55. Lee, Seol and Cho, “International marriages in South Korea”; Lim, “Rethinking Belongingness in Korea”. See also, Chung and Yoo, “Using the Multicultural Family Support Centers”; Seol, “Women marriage immigrants in Korea”; Choi and Byoun, “Domestic Violence against Migrant Women in South Korea”.
56. Certain biracial Korean/Caucasian American figures have gained huge popularity in Korea, such as the model (sometimes actor) Daniel Henney. Korea is now also infamous for the high number of men and women who undergo plastic surgery to achieve more Western (Caucasian)-looking features, such as double eyelids and higher noses, as well as the more drastic cheekbone/jawbone reduction surgery, which may ironically be seen as attempts to de-emphasise their ‘ethnic’ features. See, Seoul Touch-Up website: https://www.seoultouchup.com/about-us/ [accessed on 5 May 2015]. This is a licensed Medical Tourism Agency in Seoul, attracting many visitors from other Asian countries, in partnership with the Korean Tourism Organization.
57. Kang, “Educational Review”; Lim, “Rethinking Belongingness in Korea”, 51–52.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Kevin N. Cawley
Kevin N. Cawley received his PhD in Korean Studies from the University of Sheffield, after having lived in Seoul for several years. He was then awarded the prestigious Kyujanggak Research Fellowship at Seoul National University before taking up his current position as Director of the Irish Institute of Korean Studies in the School of Asian Studies at University College Cork (UCC), Ireland. He has published widely in international peer-reviewed journals and books on Korea’s intellectual history, including translational and acculturation issues between traditions, by engaging with contemporary critical theory. In addition, he is regularly interviewed in newspapers and on radio in relation to contemporary Korean affairs.
Author’s postal address: Irish Institute of Korean Studies, University College Cork, 3.31 O’Rahilly Building, Cork, Ireland.