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ABSTRACT
The Hakka people (Hakkas) are a global cultural ethnic group. This article explored the experiences of the Hakkas in Thailand. One major ethnic minority in Thailand is the Chinese people (14 percent of the total population) who engage in businesses and commerce throughout the country. Fifty-six percent of the Chinese are Chaozhounese, and 16 percent are Hakkas. This article argued that the Thai-Hakka identity is a transnational construction mobilized by multiple agencies at the local, national, and global levels. This identity is a result of the negotiation from the common motherland (China) in the past, the new modern Hakka discourse and the multicultural policy (Taiwan), and the complex ethnic experiences and interactions in everyday life (Thailand). Compared to the traditional diaspora viewpoint (pluri-locally distributed, with a strong identity to the motherland), the Thai-Hakka identity has gravitated towards a new path of transnational identity (pluri-locally distributed, without a clear centre–periphery relation).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Thailand contains more than 30 ethnic groups with varying histories, languages, religions, appearances, and patterns of livelihood. However, the Thai; similar to the Lao of Laos, the Shan of Myanmar (Burma prior to June 1989), and the Thai groups of southern China; comprise approximately 75% of the total population of Thailand.
2. Multicultural policy has developed from the late 1990s to support the ‘four ethnic groups’: Taiwanese aborigines, the Hakka, the Fulos and the mainlanders, to maintain their ethnic languages, culture, identity and tradition by government. In particular, the government set up “Hakka Affair Council” in 2001 to develop Hakka policy and promote Hakka identity.
3. Vertovec, “Transnationlism and identity,” 573-582.
4. Purkayastha, “Another world of experience?” 85–99.
5. Riccio, “From “ethnic groups” to “transnational community?”583–599
6. Al-Ali et al., “The limits to “transnationalism:” Bosnian and Eritrean,” 578–600.
7. Portes et al., “Introduction: Pitfalls and promises of an emergent,” 217–237.
8. Faist, “Transnationalization in International Migration,” 189–222.
9. Appadurai, “Disjuncture and difference in global,” 295–310; Featherstone, “Global culture: An introduction,” 1–14; Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture.
10. Pries, “Ambiguities of Global and Transnational,” 30.
11. Robertson, “Globalisation or Glocalization,” 33–52
12. Pries, “Ambiguities of Global and Transnational,” 29.
13. See note 10 above.
14. Pries, “Ambiguities of global and transnational,” 31
15. Disaphol Chansiri (Citation2008) divided the immigration of to Chinese people to Thailand into five waves: The first immigration began during the first Thai Kingdom, when King Ramkhamhaeng, the third king of the Sukhothai Dynasty (the first Thai dynasty, 1238–1350), established formal diplomatic relations with the Chinese Emperor Nguan Si Joa. Chinese began to arrive in Siam to trade, and they boosted the Thai economy by introducing porcelain production facilities and teaching the Thai how to make porcelain and conduct trade. During King Ramkhamhaeng’s era, the Thai economy developed rapidly as is evidenced from the Thai stone script, which showed that there was free trade between Thailand and China. The second migration began during the Ayutthaya Dynasty (1318–1766), referred to by the Chinese as the ‘Da Cheng’ Dynasty. The Chinese arrived in Thailand during this period to fill a labor shortage that was partly due to the Thai caste system, which withdrew members of the commoner (Prai) class from the labor force for four months of government service as required by the ancient Thai Law of the Three Seals. The Thai government needed a larger labor force for farming and trading, so the Thai government encouraged Chinese immigration. The Chinese subsequently provided valuable assistance toward the development of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, and Ayutthaya became one of the richest capitals within the area during that period. Likewise, the Thai king appointed numerous overseas Chinese to hold high-ranking positions in the Royal Thai Court to deal primarily with the Chinese trade and address the needs of overseas Chinese in the Thai Kingdom. During this period of immigration, the local Thai community accepted the Chinese community in their everyday lives, and over time this acceptance made them feel that the overseas Chinese belonged with them. The third significant migration spanned 40 years between 1767 and 1807, during which time Thailand enjoyed trade relations with the Chinese Qing Dynasty, and a large number of Chinese settlers during this time supplied the labor force to build the new capital of the Thonburi Dynasty and served as soldiers to help the Thai army fight the Burmese. Initially, the Chinese settled in the area where the Grand Palace stands today. But after 1782, when King Phra Phuttha Yot Fa Chula Lok (King Rama I) moved the capitol to the east of Chao Phraya River and established Rattanakisin, the Chinese helped the Thai government to build the new capital once again.The fourth migration phase took place over the course of 130 years between 1807-1937, when a large number of Chinese immigrants settled in the southern part of Thailand to work as laborers in the tin mines. During King Chulalongkorn’s (Rama V) reign, the Thai government needed to develop a national economy, and depended on a large number of Chinese laborers to do so. However, at this time the Chinese still maintained their Chinese citizenship and sent all of the profits that they made back to their hometowns in China.
The fifth wave of migration began in 1935–1949, when the Communist takeover forced a massive exodus of Chinese into Thailand, this migration extending until the 1980s. During this period, the martial law carried out by Field Marshal Pibul (1938-1948) made this the most difficult time in Thai history for the Chinese community. Pibul’s assimilation policies; including the education system, a Reservation Occupation Bill for the Thai, and the Nationality Act; forced the Chinese to speak and dress as the Thai people did and to send their children to local Thai schools. The Chinese were also required to pledge their loyalty to the Thai nation, to Buddhism, and to the King.
16. Charles, “Buddhism and National Integration in Thailand,” 551–568.
17. Xu,“The History of Chinese Hakka in Thailand,” 301–310.
18. Lee, The Questions of Thai-Chinese on National Identity, 137.
19. Lee, The Questions of Thai-Chinese on National Identity, 149–150.
20. Chansiri, The Chinese Émigrés of Thailand in the Twentieth Century.
21. Skinner, “Chinese Assimilation and Thai Politics,” 237–250.
22. Bun and Kiong (1993, 140–168).
23. See note 20 above.
24. Interview with Xinglai, the officer in Minister of Culture, 24 June 2011, Ministry of Culture Bangkok.
25. Interview with Gu, Kang-lin, Professor, 5 July 2010, Central World, Bangkok.
26. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, on 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
27. Xu, Overseas Chinese and Their Letters.
28. Lee, The History of Chinese in East-South Asian Countries, 2003.
29. Xu, Overseas Chinese and Their Letters, 301–310.
30. Mahatdhanobol, Keu Hakka Keu Chin Kea.
31. See note 28 above.
32. See note 20 above.
33. Liu, “Chaoshan Banshan Hakkas,” 38–51.
34. See note 21 above.
35. See note 17 above.
36. Xu, “The History of Chinese Hakka,” 275.
37. Interview with Samarn Laodumrongchai (Researcher in Asia Research Center for Migration Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University) on 28 May 2009 at Chulalongkong University in Thailand.
38. Political Science Faculty, Chulalongkorn University on 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
39. Interview with Samarn Laodumrongchai on 28 May 2009, at Chulalongkong University in Thailand.
40. Interview with Dr. Chin, Chinsetawong, D.B.A, the Senior Honorary Chairman for Life in the Hakka Association of Thailand and the Chairman of Association for Hakka Literature, on 16 August 2012, Bangkok.
41. Interview with Dr. Poj, Kanjanaplan, the Senior Honorary President for Life in the Hakka Association of Thailand, on 15 July 2010, Bangkok.
42. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, on 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
43. Chen, New Discourse on the Origin of the Hakkas.
44. Chen, New Discourse on the Origin of the Hakkas,155
45. Interview with Professor Gu, Kang-lin on 5 July 2010, Central World, Bangkok.
46. Leong, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History, 14.
47. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, an academic at Chulalongkong University in Thailand, 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
48. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, an academic at Chulalongkong University in Thailand, 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
49. Interview with Noppadon Chawankon, the Senior Honorary Chairman for Life in the Hakka Association of Thailand, the Chairman of Association for Thai-Hakka, on 9 October 2009, Bangkok.
50. Interview with Noppadon Chawankon, the Senior Honorary Chairman for Life in the Hakka Association of Thailand, the Chairman of Association for Thai-Hakka, on 9 October 2009.
51. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, an academic at Chulalongkong University in Thailand, 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
52. Interview with Gu, Kang-lin, Professor, on 5 July 2010, Central World, Bangkok.
53. Interview with Cai, Xianwen, 31 August 2015Lat Pooh Hakka Cultural Hall.
54. In 1987, some young Hakkas established the magazine The Hakka Storm and began to fight for their cultural rights. In 1998, the Hakka people held the first social movement ‘Returning my mother tongue to me’, the government began to provide public policy to support Hakka culture, such as cultural promotion, language promotion, and media access. In 2000, the government set up the Committee of Hakka Affair to develop the Hakka culture in Taiwan.
55. Rayong Hakka Hall, The Special Issues of Rayong Hakka Hall, 13–14.
56. Rayong Hakka Hall, The Special Issues of Rayong Hakka,15.
57. The speech of President Ma, Ying-Jiu on 22 August 2010, from the website of http://n.yam.com/rti/politics/201008/20100821405688.html
58. Wang, “Diaspora, Identity and Cultural Citizenship,” 875–895.
59. Interview with Dr. Zhong, Chen-Da, Hakka and Chinese language teacher and research as well as a member of the Association of Taiwanese Hakka in Thailand, on 26 September 2009.
60. Interview with Chen, Jin-He, the fourth Chairman of ATHT, Interview on 26 September 2009, Bangkok.
61. Interview with Huang, Ying-liang, 2012 August.
62. Interview with Gu, Kang-lin, Professor, on 5 July 2010, Central World, Bangkok.
63. According to one legend, Nu Wa (sometimes Nu Kua) was the creator of mankind. Another legend tells how she patched up the sky. Two deities, called Gong Gong (the God of Water) and Zhu Rong, (the God of Fire) in one version were in battle. They fought all the way from heaven to earth, causing turmoil everywhere. The God of Fire won, and the God of Water struck his head against Buzhou Mountain (a mythical peak supposed to be northwest of the Kunlun range in southern Xinjiang) in anger. The mountain collapsed and down came the big pillar that held heaven from earth. Half the sky fell in, leaving a big black hole. Nu Wa was heartbroken that mankind which she had created should undergo such suffering. She decided to mend the sky and end this catastrophe. She melted together various kinds of colored stones and patched up the sky with the molten mixture. Then she killed a giant turtle and used its four legs as four pillars to support the fallen part of the sky.
64. Interview with Xu, Xiang-Cai, the former chairman of Huizhou Association, on 16 August 2012, Bangkok.
65. Interview with Xie, Jin-Shui, the former chairman of Hat Yai Hakka Association, on 30 June 2016, Hat Yai.
66. Interview with Hai-Qing Qiu, the former chairman of Betong Hakka Association, on 29 June 2016, Betong.
67. Interview with Xu, Xiang-Cai, the former chairman of Huizhou Association, on 16 August 2012, Bangkok.
68. Interview with Xu, Xiang-Cai, the former chairman of Huizhou Association, on 16 August 2012, Bangkok.
69. Interview with Dr. Chin, Chinsetawong, D. B. A, the Senior Honorary Chairman for Life in the Hakka Association of Thailand and the Chairman of Association for Hakka Literature, on 16 August 2012, Bangkok.
70. Interview with Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol, an academic at Chulalongkong University in Thailand, on 28 May 2009, Bangkok: Chulalongkong University.
71. Safran, “Diasporas in Modern Societies,” 83–99.
72. See note 8 above.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Li-Jung Wang
Dr. Li-Jung Wang, Professor in Department of Hakka Language and Social Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan, Taiwan. She is PhD for cultural policy studies in University of Warwick (1999-2003). Dr. Wang’s academic interests are relative to ethnic cultural policy, Hakka studies, cultural identity, cultural citizenship, sociology of consumption, transnational community and media uses. Her works are including: The Development of Hakka Ethnicity and Cultural Policy in Taiwan (2012, in Chinese); and ‘Cultural Rights and Citizenship in Cultural Policy: Taiwan and China’, International Journal of Cultural Policy(AHCI)(2014), ‘Toward Cultural Citizenship? Cultural Rights and Cultural Policy in Taiwan’, Citizenship Studies(SSCI)(2013),‘Internet use, group identity, and political participation among Taiwanese Americans’. China Media Research (2009), ‘Diaspora, Identity and Cultural Citizenship: the Hakkas in Multicultural Taiwan’, Ethnic and Racial Studies (2007).