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ABSTRACT
Despite the substantial research on marriage migrant women in Korea documenting the challenges they experience as they adapt to Korean society, little is known about their relationships outside of families. To fill the gap, this study examines how marriage migrant women make friends, especially focusing on the concepts of intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic friendship. Our findings suggest that marriage migrant women are likely to form close relationships with people from the same country of origin as a buffer against adaptation stress, which indicates strong intra-ethnic friendship. Regarding inter-ethnic friendship, women tend to prefer friends who are from Korea to those from other East Asian countries, which indicates their desire of learning Korean language and ethnic culture. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of how women form a variety of friendships and how marriage migrant women’s co-ethnic friends as well as Korean friends assist in their transition to Korea.
Acknowledgments
We thank anonymous reviewers’ helpful feedback.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Scholars paid particular attention to the Korean government, which aggressively adopted multicultural policies and controlled immigration as a strategy to respond to labor shortage, declining marriage rates, and low fertility. For example, Eungi Kim assessed that the Korean government played a significant ‘catalyst’ role in legal and political changes. For further details see Kim, ‘Korean Multiculturalism,’ 114.
2. Kim, ‘Multicultural Challenges in Korea’
3. Choi, ‘Social-cultural Adaptation of Foreign Wives’; and Sul et al., ‘Social Network and Transnational Identity’
4. Kim and Lee, ‘Life Satisfaction among Marriage-Immigrant’
5. Kim, ‘Citizenship Projects for Marriage Migrants’
6. Hruschka, Friendship: Development, Ecology, and Evolution; Grey and Sturdy, ‘Friendship and Organizational Analysis’; and Rawlins, Friendship Matters.
7. Rawlins, Friendship Matters, 271.
8. Ryan, ‘Migrants’ Social Networks”
9. We could think about other types of friendships from western countries or ethnic groups other than Asians such as women from the middle eastern countries, but this type of friendship in reality was almost non-existent.
10. Titzmann et al., ‘Friendship Homophily among Adolescents’; Titzmann and Silbereisen, ‘Friendship Homophily among Ethnic German Immigrants’; and Titzmann, “Immigrant Adolescents’ Adaptation and Friendship”
11. Li and Tong, ‘Coming Together or Remaining Apart?’; and Titzmann et al., ‘Friendship Homophily among Adolescents’
12. See note 8 above; and Bunnell and Kathiravelu, ‘Extending Urban Liveability’
13. Rho et al., ‘Eco-centered Network Analysis,’ 160.
14. Ibid., 160.
15. Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 413.
16. See note 10 above.
17. Martinovic et al., ‘Cross-Ethnic Friends of Immigrants,’ 483.
18. Titzmann and Silbereisen, ‘Friendship Homophily among Ethnic German Immigrants,’ 16–18.
19. Titzmann et al., ‘Friendship Homophily among Adolescents’ 7; and Titzmann, “Immigrant Adolescents’ Adaptation and Friendship”
20. Martinovic et al., ‘Cross-Ethnic Friends of Immigrants,’ 481–484.
21. Smith et al., ‘Ethnic Composition and Friendship Segregation,’ 1256–1257.
22. Martinovic et al., ‘Cross-Ethnic Friends of Immigrants,’ 485.
23. Bélanger, ‘The House and Classroom’; and Lee et al., ‘Precarious Motherhood of Marriage Migrants’
24. Lee, ‘Gender, Migration and Civil Activism,’ 145.
25. Lee and Roh, ‘Social Capital, Acculturative Stress and Acculturation,’ 258–259.
26. Ibid.
27. Hwang, ‘Social Network and Diverse Action Strategies,’ 8.
28. See note 8 above.
29. Rho et al., ‘Eco-centered Network Analysis’; and see note 24 above.
30. Hwang, ‘Social Network and Diverse Action Strategies,’ 18–23; and Kim, ‘Social Network of Married-Immigrant,’ 14.
31. Rho et al., ‘Eco-centered Network Analysis’
32. Hwang, ‘Social Network and Diverse Action Strategies,’ 23–24; and Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 413.
33. Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 412.
34. Kim, ‘Social Network of Married-Immigrant,’ 17.
35. Lee, ‘Marriage Migrant Case of Boeun and Yangpyeong,’ 43.
36. Sul et al., ‘Social Network and Transnational Identity,’ 249–250.
37. Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 413.
38. Hwang, ‘Social Network and Diverse Action Strategies,’ 25.
39. Ibid., 28.
40. Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 413; and Kim, ‘Social Network of Married-Immigrant,’ 11.
41. See note 40 above.
42. Lee, ‘Marriage Migrant Case of Boeun and Yangpyeong,’ 44.
43. Park and Chung, ‘Acculturation and Identity of Immigrant Wives,’ 429.
44. Ibid., 413.
45. See note 35 above.
46. Lee and Oh, ‘Support Program for Multi-Cultural Community,’ 187–188.
47. See note 31 above.
48. Chae et al., “Filipino Female Immigrants’ Marriage”; see note 5 above; and see note 34 above.
49. Jung, ‘Transnational Logic of Gratitude’
50. Verkuyten, ‘Everyday Multiculturalism,’ 53.
51. Fleras and Elliot, The Challenge of Diversity; Kim, ‘Korean Multiculturalism,’ 120–126; see note 2 above; and Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: Liberal Theory.
52. The conservative elites, including corporate elites and conservative politicians, employ multicultural language for the sake of national economy and security to advance their economic interests by deploying Korean culture for employee commitment and economic development based on ‘nationalistic pride.’ By contrast, progressive elites, including liberal activists and actors in civil society, use liberal cosmopolitan languages to support liberal values by valorizing pluralism and meeting the demands of grassroots NGOs and civil society to claim protections for citizenship and employment rights. For more details see Watson, ‘Paradoxical Multiculturalism in South Korea,’ 342.
53. Ibid.
54. Bloemraad et al., ‘Citizenship and Immigration,’ 162.
55. Kim, ‘Korean Multiculturalism,’ 124; see note 2 above; Lim, ‘Who is Korean?,’ 1–2; and Shin, ‘Ethnic Nationalism in Korea.’
56. Shin, ‘Ethnic Nationalism in Korea’
57. Ibid., 227.
58. Yun, ‘Ethnonationalism Comparison,’ 532; and due to the valorization of homogeneous Korean culture, marriage migrant women from South East Asia encounter various social and racial discrimination and experience marginalization due to their lack of language proficiency and ethnicity (Park, Citation2017). This suggest that how much marriage migrant women speak competent Koreans may influence the ways in which they make friends in the workplace and other everyday circumstances. For more details see Park, ‘Resisting Linguistic and Ethnic Marginalization.’
59. Kim, ‘Korean Multiculturalism,’ 124.
60. See note 5 above.
61. Watson, ‘Multiculturalism in South Korea,’ 338.
62. Kim, ‘Korean Multiculturalism,’ 124.
63. Glaser and Strauss, Discovery of Grounded Theory, 2.
64. Mikyung is a Vietnamese woman who was born in 1987 and currently a housewife with one son and daughter. She married her husband who is a taxi driver in 2008. Her original family has working-class background and she is a high school graduate.
65. Ahyun is an Indonesian woman who was born in 1980 and currently a housewife with one son and daughter. She married her husband who operates his business in 2003. Her original family has working-class background and she is a middle school graduate.
66. Hyunjoo is a Vietnamese woman who was born in 1992 and currently a housewife with one son and she also work at a skincare shop. She married her husband who works in a furniture factory in 2013. Her original family has working-class background.
67. Although the majority of the marriage migrant women in our study experienced no significant challenges in speaking Korean to communicate with their immediate family members (e.g. husband, in-laws, children), many strived hard to be even more proficient in Korean. Engaging in simple, daily conversations were not much of a concern for most marriage migrant women. Nevertheless, marriage migrant women were often not as enthusiastic about interacting with other immigrants, and rather preferred to interact with Korean people so that they can practice and improve their proficiency in Korean language.
68. Angelica is a Pilipino woman who was born in 1989 and currently a housewife with one son and daughter. She married her husband who operates his business in 2003. Her original family has working-class background and she is a middle school graduate.
69. Woohyun is a Vietnamese woman who was born in 1985 and currently a housewife with one son. She married her husband who works in a factory in 2014. Her original family has working-class background and she has a Bachelor’s degree.
70. The Korean women that marriage migrant women introduced as friends are those who they meet at schools as mothers of children and those who work together as a colleague. While we are not sure whether they are religious or not, Korean women are likely to develop friendship when they share similar motherhood identity. Also, Korean people are prone to consider other foreigners who speak Korean language well as friends who they are willing to accept.
71. Beth is a Pilipino woman who was born in 1990 and currently a housewife with two daughters. She married her husband who is a delivery man in 2014. Her original family has working-class background.
72. Milkie et al., ‘Taking on the Second Shift’
73. Jimin is a Pilippino woman who was born in 1973 and currently a housewife with one son and daughter, and she teaches at the multicultural center. She married her husband who is a technician in 2000. Her original family has middle-class background and she has a Bachelor’s degree.
74. Name of one of the largest retail department stores in South Korea.
75. Hwang, ‘Social Network and Diverse Action Strategies,’ 24.
76. Horst, ‘The Blessing and Burdens’
77. Jinyoung is a Mongolian woman who was born in 1982 and currently a housewife with one daughter. She married her husband who is a taxi driver in 2010. Her original family has middle-class background and she has a Bachelor’s degree.
78. See note 5 above.
79. See note 15 above; and see note 33 above.
80. See note 31 above.
81. Ibid.
82. See note 5 above.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Gowoon Jung
Gowoon Jung is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Kyung Hee University in Seoul, Korea. Her research interests focus on gender/sexuality, family/youth, migration, and religion. She has published articles in International Sociology, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Journal of Homosexuality, Critical Asian Studies, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Social Compass, and others.
Eugena Kwon
Eugena Kwon is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Trent University in Canada. Her research interests focus on gender, migration, race and ethnicity, and health. She has published articles in Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, Canadian Ethnic Studies, Gender Issues, and others.
Hanul Sohn
Hanul Sohn is an undergraduate student in the department of Sociology at Kyung Hee University in Seoul, Korea.