‘I did not know that the pupils loved dancing … until the projector came’: constructions of dance as learning activity in school-age educare

ABSTRACT

Interest in school-age educare has been growing internationally. School-age educare in Sweden emphasises learning and participation in aesthetic and creative learning activities. This study aims to critically examine how dance as a learning activity is constructed by educators in Swedish school-age educare. Discourse analysis is used to shed light on discursive constructions made by school-age educators when they reason about dance and learning in their educational practices. The empirical material consists of six focus-group interviews with 18 school-age educators. Three discourses are identified: (1) dance as a joy-filled activity, (2) digital tools as prerequisites for dancing, and (3) pre-choreographed dances as a preference. The results show that there is a lack of aesthetic and creative aspects in dance in school-age educare. School-age educators include dance because it is fun and is carried out by imitating movements without a focus on learning. The educators who appreciate dance lack the know-how to develop pupils’ dance skills beyond what they already know. There are holistic ambitions in school-age educare to let care, play, and learning intersect, but creative dance still has an untapped potential to engage pupils in cultural activities and to contribute to gender repositioning.

KEYWORDS:

• Children
• dance education
• digital tools
• school-age educare
• teacher competence

Introduction

According to UNICEF (2019), dancing is one way for children to develop imagination, creativity, and social skills. As it is every child’s right to participate in cultural activities, dance provides a platform that can meet such needs. School-age educare in Sweden is closely connected to the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (UNICEF 2019), therefore it is urgent to examine the role of dance in this specific educational context. Dance can facilitate social and emotional wellbeing (Biasutti and Habe 2023; Fortin et al. 2023) as well as aesthetic appreciation (Dullea 2022).

In many countries, there is a growing interest in extended education (e.g. Bae 2019; Fischer, Radisch, and Schüpbach 2014), and a body of literature explores not only students’ school performance but also their social and emotional abilities in afterschool activities (e.g. Durlak, Weissberg, and Pachan 2010; Kanefuji 2015; Zief, Lauver, and Maynard 2006). An example of extended education is school-age educare, in which almost 85% of all children aged six to nine years in Sweden take part after their school day has finished. The demands for high quality in school-age educare in Sweden have increased, with a distinct focus on teaching and learning opportunities, in accordance with the Swedish National Agency of Education (SNAE 2019).

Swedish school-age educare (fritidshem in Swedish) has developed over time in line with the social goal to increase equality. The care of children after their school day connects policy areas such as education politics, family politics, and labor market politics (Andishmand 2017; SNAE 2019). In 1996, the responsibility for school-age educare was transferred from the Ministry of Social Affairs to the Ministry of Education, emphasizing the educational aspects.

The goals for school-age educare in Sweden are closely related to those of preschool education (SOU 1991: 54). Both strive for a holistic, democratic, and lifelong learning approach (Andishmand 2017; SOU 1974: 42). In fact, there is a specific chapter in the curriculum for elementary school that is devoted to school-age educare. As the qualifications required for educators has gained more importance, the curriculum has placed greater emphasis on learning aspects. There is an ongoing debate on ‘schoolification,’ and educators have raised concerns on the hierarchical positioning related to care and play (Andishmand 2017). According to the curriculum, Lgr22 (SNAE 2022b), pupils should have opportunities to participate in creative learning activities and express themselves through aesthetic forms of expression. Dance is an aesthetic form of expression that is referred to in the curriculum’s core content: ‘Creation through various aesthetic forms of expression, for example, play, art, music, dance and drama’ (ibid.). However, the number of qualified teachers in school-age educare is low, with less than 25% having the necessary qualifications (SNAE 2022a)

Consequently, there is a lack of pedagogical knowledge regarding how to support children’s development in aesthetic creation, such as dance. Although there is limited research on dance in school-age educare, Pereira and Pinto (2017) have found that dance activities in an after-school socio-emotional learning program contribute to children’s social and emotional development.

Research on dance in pedagogical contexts

However, in other pedagogical contexts, dance is well explored. For example, its significance for children’s development regarding creative, artistic, and motor skills has received versatile attention (Gard 2003; Smith Autard 2013; Svendler; Nielsen and Burridge 2015; Stinson 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Winner, Goldstein, and Vincent-Lancrin 2013). Importantly, dance has been described as both a physical activity and an aesthetic expression (Gard 2006b; Mattsson 2016; Mattsson and Larsson 2021).

Studies show that dance is linked to femininity, which can create challenges for boys who wish to participate in dancing (Gard 2003; Lindqvist 2010, 2019; Pastorek Gripson 2016; Risner 2009; Stinson 2001). A creative dance approach and bodily experiences through a combination of music and movement are important to support children’s ability to interpret body motion (Ginman et al. 2022). Dance as an aesthetic expression provides insights into the body in motion, which, in turn, becomes a way of understanding oneself and the world.

The potential of dance in schools

Dance has been found to have a positive impact on children’s cognitive development during their school day. Giguere (2011) found that creating dances developed children’s cognition, with both individual and group cognitive strategies present. Additionally, Konstantinidou (2023) observed that the effects of Creative Dance (CreDa) impact cognitive, psychosocial, and physical domains. A study by Zitomer (2016) explored the experiences of children with disabilities in elementary school dance education and found that dance has the potential to benefit all children. The children with disabilities felt competent and included in their ability to participate alongside their classmates, and they experienced a sense of belonging. Embodied knowledge became apparent in learning experiences, but most important were relationships with the teachers. The teachers had to establish clearer explanations and the children required more adult support. As a result, the children with disabilities then experienced joy and success in dance education.

In physical education classes, expressive assignments were used in a pedagogical intervention. Instead of imitating pre-choreographed dances, the 14 to15-year-old pupils created their own dances based on Laban’s movement framework. The result showed that the teachers discovered new resources in the pupils, and that the pupils expanded their movements beyond their earlier experiences (Mattsson 2016; Mattsson and Larsson 2021). Also, Pickard (2022) emphasizes the potential of dance in primary school physical education for teaching and learning, highlighting the unique opportunities for bodily learning. Dance is a holistic art form with multiple aspects – including physical, cognitive, aesthetics and artistic aspects – in both teaching process and the outcome.

Moreover, dance education in schools has the potential to contribute to gender repositioning, according to Gard 2003, 2006b). Pastorek Gripson (2016) examined gender and dance practice in primary school and investigated how gender influences the way dance teachers address their pupils, the way that pupils organize and understand themselves, and carry out tasks in dance education. It was found that gender played a crucial role in creating tasks, both restricting and opening up movements for girls and boys in school dance practice.

The perceptions of global and local actions in dance education were reflected by Buck and Meiners (2017). They stressed that profiling community dance within international forums, such as UNESCO, is important for the potential of dance education. They also highlighted the significance of understanding personal history and values in imagining a way forward for dance education globally and locally. This underscores the need for a dual focus on both global recognition and local cultural context in advancing dance education.

Teachers´competences and pedagogies in dance

The competences of teachers in dance are crucial in determining the learning situations available to children in schools. In primary schools across many countries, dance is included in the curriculum. Russell-Bowie (2013) investigated the background and confidence of preservice primary teachers from five countries – Australia, Namibia, South Africa, the USA, and Ireland – in relation to dance and dance education, finding that only a small percentage of the teachers had a strong background in dance and that national background played a significant role concerning attitudes and confidence among the teachers. In the study, preservice teachers from Namibia and South Africa reported having a stronger background in dance compared to teachers from the Western countries. Additionally, there were significant differences in confidence levels between female and male teachers, with more female than male teachers indicating that they were confident in teaching dance.

The lack of bodily knowledge among early childhood teachers and weak competences in dance is a challenge for teaching dance in early childhood (Pastorek Gripson, Lindqvist, and Østern 2022). The early childhood teachers had difficulties in picturing specific dance knowledge and were frightened to use choreographic materials. Often, they simply played music and allowed the children to dance without support or challenge. Thus, a shift in pedagogical approach with a focus on supporting and challenging children in their dance experiences is required. Samson (2009) positioned a new vision for dance education in the field of early childhood education in New Zealand, emphasizing the importance honoring the life of the child. Samson (2009) stressed that dance is not only a fun and enjoyable way to enhance well-being, but that it can also be a means to understanding life and what it means to be human. In physical education class that included dance, there is evidence that physical education teachers may feel insecure about teaching dance (e.g. Mattsson 2016). Ørbæk and Engelsrud (2021) examined PE teacher students’ experiences teaching creative dance in PE in Norway and found that teaching creative dance was challenging, as most dance teaching consists of pre-choreographed movements. To address this, they suggest expanding the idea of what creative dance can be in PE and moving teaching strategies towards a student-centered approach.

In another study, Schupp (2022) argued that dance teachers need to rethink their pedagogy and shift from ‘best practices’ towards cultivating ethical approaches for teaching with reflections upon personal and cultural values. For example, a pedagogy course in dance program can help teachers expand their understanding of creative dance and move towards a student-centered approach.

In addition, Kipling Brown (2014) highlights students’ own learning in dance education. The researcher emphasizes the importance of shaping a more invigorative and purposeful dance education that enables students to value and trust their bodies. Teachers’ embodied competence is crucial in dance education. However, in the holistic educational landscape, such as school-age educare centers and pre-schools, it is also important to build long-lasting trustful relationships to facilitate creative learning possibilities for all children (Pastorek Gripson, Mattsson, and Lindqvist 2023).

Aim and research questions

The aim of this study is to critically examine how dance as a learning activity is constructed by educators in Swedish school-age educare. Therefore, we ask the following research questions:

1. How do school-age educators motivate incorporating dance activities in their teaching and what strategies do they use?

2. What discourses about learning opportunities and challenges related to dance in school-age educare do they emphasize?

Methodology and theoretical framework

In this study, we have taken a qualitative research approach to examine conditions and prerequisites for how learning in dance is constructed in school-age educare in Sweden. The research material consists of semi-structured interviews with 18 school-age educators in two different geographical areas in southern Sweden. In our analysis, we draw from discourse analysis to examine the ways in which school-age educators reason about dance in their educational setting.

Study design

This study is drawn from discourse analysis, and it critically examines statements made by school-age educators when they reason about dance in their teaching practice. Analyzing discourses involves focusing on the way something is described or constructed (Olsson 1999). Olsson emphasizes that discourses are constituted by linguistic productions of ‘truth’ and by societal processes in institutions. As school-age educare is one such institution, it is therefore explored in this study.

From a discourse analytical perspective, the focus is not solely on what is explicitly articulated, as this would only provide a description of a particular theme or area of focus (Bryman 2020). Lindgren (2006) argues that what is not mentioned, or mentioned to a limited extent, shows how a topic is comprehended. Discourses are always related to power, and what does not occur in the empirical material can be understood as marginalized or having a low status. Therefore, deconstruction enables identifying and problematizing dichotomic positions (McQuillan 2000). For instance, if educators regularly mention specific aspects of the learning situation but seldom mention other aspects, this points toward a shared consensus.

In line with Lenz Taguchi (2009), we, as researchers, aim to destabilize taken-for-granted perspectives and to, instead, illuminate multiple ‘truths.’ The hierarchy between different positions can be regarded as productive, as they indicate areas that can be developed and contribute to repositioning the dichotomies (Winther Jørgensen and Phillips 2009). Significantly, alternative truths are paramount as they reveal terra incognita that can be developed into contributing to the repositioning of dichotomies (ibid.).

Data production

The data of this study consists of six semi-structured focus group interviews with 18 educators. As the interviews are semi structured, the educators actively participate in the interview process by, for example, adding reflections or by asking their own questions. Thus, we argue that the data collection process is not just a one-way exchange, but rather a co-production of data that takes place during the interviews.

To provide structure to the rather open interviews, the researchers ensured that the five following topics were covered: (1) experiences of and attitudes towards dance, (2) spontaneous dance among the children, (3) pedagogical considerations about dance, (4) documentation and curriculum in work with dance, and (5) development, training, and needs of educators. During the interviews, these topics were intertwined. Thus, the interviews were characterized by an intertwined nature, resembling a ‘wave,’ as the discussions moved back and forward in a constructive process. This approach and the active participation of the educators hold ethical implications and possibilities, as discussed in the chapter on ethical considerations.

The analysis aimed to deconstruct the transcriptions through clarifying functions and variations within the educators’ narratives. This phase of the analysis sought to identify consistencies and inconsistencies in the educators’ statements through a critical lens. We then thematized the empirical material based on repetitions, that is when a specific theme occurred on a regular basis in the material. We also paid attention to differences and similarities between different informants’ statements and to aspects that were not mentioned or described at all (Bryman 2020). Metaphors and local expressions were also of interest, as they contribute with nuances and a specific understanding in a local context. Holmberg (2010) discusses how a statement becomes true if and how an agent is included. For example, when a teacher describes a change in their attitude towards dance after taking a ballet course, the statement may be considered more reliable as it reflects a shift in the informant’s perspective. This turning point illustrates a transition from one opinion to another, thus enhancing the credibility of the statement.

Categorization is not a process of just naming (Potter 1996) but a process where something is constituted. When something is categorized, it is at the same time shaped as something. In this study, dance can be constituted as an aesthetic activity or as an activity motivated by physical aspects: ‘it is good to move.’ Different aspects can also be linked together in a chain where a specific symbolic narrative is constructed. The constitution of different discourses is determined by what is possible and eligible to say.

Participating schools and educators

Eighteen school-age educators (12 women and 6 men) were interviewed in six semi-structured interviews. Most of the participants were qualified educators (N = 12) for school-age educare; however, some of them had lower or no pedagogical education (N = 6). The educators in this study were more educated than other school-age educators in Sweden, where there is a lack of certified staff (SNAE 2019). All participants took part in the focus-group interviews and were given fictitious names to ensure anonymity.

The interviews took place at six school-age educare institutions in southern Sweden during spring 2022. We have given each educare a fictive name:

1. Jupiter school, with 400 pupils aged 6–12 years, is situated in a big city.

2. Mercury school, with 430 pupils aged 6–11 years, is situated in a smaller town in an immigrant-dense area.

3. Neptune school, with 300 pupils aged 6–12 years, is situated in an industrial town (bruksort).

4. Saturn school, with 180 pupils aged 6–12 years, is situated in an urban area near a big city.

5. Tellus school, with 350 pupils aged 6–12 years, is situated in an urban area near a big city.

6. Uranus school, with 750 pupils aged 6–16 years, is situated in an urban area close to the city center.

The interviews lasted between 55 and 75 minutes, were recorded on Dictaphone and transcribed by the authors. The chart below provides an overview of the education, work experience, relevant background, gender, and workplace for each of the 18 educators. The chart distinguishes between long experience (more than 7 years) and short experience (less than 7 years) in school-age educare. By experience we mean experience of work within school-age educare. Some of the educators with long experience have worked more than 25 years in this field.

Table

School/informant	Male/female	Teacher Education Degree	Work experience	Relevant interests/background
Jupiter/Mariette	F	Yes	Short	Interested in sports
Jupiter/Sebbe	M	No	Short	Dances in free time
Jupiter/Doris	F	Yes	Short	Dances in free time
Jupiter/Sorya	F	No	Short	Interested in dance
Mercury/Monica	F	Yes	Long	Member of a dance educated family
Mercury/Samir	M	No	Short	Assistant nurse, interested in music
Mercury/Caleb	M	No	Short	Interested in sports
Neptune/Lena	F	No	Long	Sport and movement coach during teacher training period
Neptune/Marie-Louise	F	No	Long	Line-dancing instructor
Saturnus/Jens	M	Yes	Long	Interested in sports
Saturnus/Mia	F	Yes	Long	Interested in sports
Saturnus/Erik	M	Yes	Short	Interested in sports
Tellus/Yvonne	F	Yes	Long	Folk dancing instructor
Tellus/Madde	F	Yes	Long	Interested in drama and music
Tellus/Andreas	M	No	Short	Interested in music
Uranus/Anette	F	Yes	Long	Instructor in dancing and gymnastics
Uranus/Elin	F	Yes	Long	Interested in handycraft
Uranus/Carola	F	Yes	Long	Interested in creative craft activities

Data analysis

The process of data analysis begins informally at the very start of the interview, as topics, answers, and shared understanding prompt consideration of the underlying implications. Subsequently, after the interviews, when the data is transcribed, a more formal analysis begins. This involves a through reading of the transcripts to identify patterns, similarities, differences, and contradictions. In line with Potter (1996), this study aims to analyze articulations used by school-age educators when they reason about dance and its position in their everyday practice.

The study focuses on the ‘function’ of a statement made by the educators, which shows how the statement works as a strategy to create a specific picture of something, in this case dance in school age educare and the effects it brings to the understanding of the specific topic (Holmberg 2010; Potter 1996). Accordingly, it is possible to sense how function and effect are intertwined, as the function gives a specific potential effect in the meaning making. The categories found in the study consist of, as informed by discourse analysis, both what is said and what remains unmentioned.

Ethical considerations

The school-age educators were informed about the study by their principal prior to the interviews, and they were provided with an information letter and a consent form to review. Before the interviews commenced, the information was reiterated verbally, and the educators were assured that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. Subsequently, the participants expressed their consent to take part in the focus-group interviews by signing the content form.

The study follows the Swedish Research Council’s guiding principles for social science research (Swedish Research Council 2017) for example, the names of all schools and participants in the study are fictitious. Guidelines for researchers included being humble and showing interest in meeting with the participants, showing respect for their knowledge and experiences, and creating a trustful interview situation (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2003). To facilitate a flexible and respectful dialogue, the study aimed to create an informal atmosphere.

In accordance with the European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (ALLEA 2023), the study aimed to create an informal atmosphere and facilitate a flexible and respectful dialogue during the semi-structured interviews with school-age educators. The participants were given agency throughout the interviews, and their experiences, opinions, and reflections contributed to shaping each interview in a unique way. This approach fostered a shared understanding among the participants and researchers alike.

From an ethical standpoint, there may be concerns about encouraging respondents to ‘open up’ and then analyzing their contributions from a critical perspective. However, we argue that the research process involved providing information about the aims of the study. This analytical approach is not intended to be critical of individuals, but rather to understand the discourses at a meta level that shapes the practice in which the educators work. From this perspective, a critical analysis can lead to reflective discussions among principals and colleagues and contribute to emancipative consequences within the practice in the long term. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (ALLEA 2023) emphasizes the importance of ‘accountability’ and the impact that research can have on society. We argue that such critical reflections can contribute to such an impact.

Findings

In all the school-age educare facilities included in this study, dance is a prevalent activity, and the pupils seemingly have a great interest in it. The educators uniformly express positive attitudes towards dance and affirm its significance in the educational setting. Three main discourses of how dance as a learning activity is constructed appear in the material: dance as a joy-filled activity, the use of digital tools as prerequisites for dancing, and a preference for pre-choreographed dances.

Dance as a joy-filled activity

The educators encourage dance as an activity in school-age educare, emphasizing that it creates joy and well-being. Dance often takes place spontaneously outdoors in the schoolyard or as a disco indoors. The construction of dance as a joy-filled activity contains concepts such as fun, voluntary, and challenging, ‘to dare to dance.’ The educators from Mercury School state that dance has a positive position in school-age educare when asked about its position:

Monika:

That it’s fun … .

Caleb:

That they can move.

Monika believes that dance gives joy and is fun. It is about pleasure, and it does not matter so much what kind of dance it is or with whom you dance. Caleb highlights the importance of dance as a physical activity and believes that is crucial for the pupils to be allowed to move, regardless of how they move. Samir adds to the conversation: ‘Yes, but it is also to show oneself, to be able to stand in front of others and perform. I also think it’s important to have self-esteem as well.’

Samir takes up another dimension of joy, one that revolves around being daring. He connects the joy-filled activity with having self-esteem. It is acknowledged that educators play a crucial role in encouraging pupils to dare to dance. Not only will it be rewarding for the students, but also fun and rewarding for the educator when they successfully motivate the students to participate in the activity. In this discourse, dance as a learning activity is constructed in a here-and-now perspective.

According to the interviews, dancing ceases to be fun and is not a joy-filled activity when children are compelled to dance. Sebbe, from Jupiter School, emphasizes:

When you are forced to dance. If you’re in a class and maybe half the class say ‘Oh that’s boring. I do not dare’, or something like that. I myself have no problem with that.

It is the joy-filled activity itself that creates meaning, and the educators perceive it as problematic if the pupils are forced to participate. It is also not pleasurable if the activity becomes too difficult, Sebbe points out. Jupiter School had previously hired dance instructors who taught Latin American dance to the pupils. In the beginning, it was very popular; but after a while when the movements became more advanced, the pupils’ interest waned. When it became too advanced, it was no longer a joy-filled activity, and the participation among the pupils ceased. The educators at Saturn School also emphasized the importance of the location where the dancing takes place. They observed that the pupils can perform advanced steps when they dance voluntarily with their peers. However, when the same steps are taught in a physical education class, the pupils complain that it is too advanced, stating ‘I cannot’ handle the level of complexity. It appears that dancing only becomes fun and enjoyable when the pupils have a genuine interest in participating in the activity, and the educators at Saturn school are very sensitive to their interests and level of engagement. The participants cited a successful dance activity where the pupils thought it immensely fun.

Few of the educators have subject knowledge in dance. They acknowledge that dance has been included in their education, but that it was not given much importance and was marginalized. Further, the selection of dance in their education has only marginally covered creative and aesthetic perspectives. It is also apparent that having prior knowledge in teaching dance is not a requirement for educators. Monika from Mercury School relates:

Yes, but you do not need much education. These trends like ‘Jerusalema’ and this ‘Do do do’ [sings a popular tune], it’s just joining in, learning yourself, and getting involved. And think it’s fun because then the kids think it’s fun.

Yvonne from Tellus School practices folk dancing in her spare time. Therefore, folk dances occur often at their school-age educare. The educators who have an interest in dance actively incorporate it into school-age educare more than those without any interest or experience in dancing. Even educators without specific skills in dance sometimes participate and emphasize that that being a skilled dancer is not essential. Instead, they often act the clown and show that it is okay not to be able to dance correctly. Because they are bad at dancing and dare to make a fool of themselves, they function as a kind of ‘airbag’ to protect anxious children. Elin from Jupiter school stresses:

The easiest thing is to offer yourself. We adults are role models. If we can sacrifice ourselves even though we cannot dance, it can make it easier for many. ‘She dares then I can, too.’ Or ‘I can be close to him.’ Or, if you say I can focus on myself instead of the one who feels insecure, so that person is not exposed by making a funny face or dancing something wrong. It’s easier if an adult does it versus the children.

Although there are variations in the construction of dance as a joy-filled activity, the legitimacy of dancing in school-age educare comes from the idea that the pupils should have fun, not that they should learn anything specific from the activity. However, during the interviews, the educators emphasized the positive impact of dance on motor skills, coordination, self-confidence, and community.

Digital tools as prerequisites for dancing

According to the educators, digital tools play a significant role in providing dance opportunities in the school-age educare. They explain that dance often involves the use of digital tools, with choreographies from the well-known app TikTok being favored by the pupils. Additionally, the pupils often engage with a popular digital game called Just Dance, where they mimic animated dancing animals or figures on a screen.

Doris, a teacher from Mercury School, shares an example of how TikTok brings together many pupils simultaneously and gathered them outdoors. Many of the included school-age educares incorporate music during breaks, and the pupils enjoying dancing TikTok routines that they are familiar with. Lena from Neptune School also refers to the involvement of students in computer game Just Dance. A projector is used to show dances, which the pupils mimic:

We have a lot of Just Dance, for example, where they follow movements on the white board, which we set up. It’s very popular, because it’s both their music and movements that they recognize. I think, when it comes to dance, that it should be something they recognize. Otherwise, it inhibits participation instead of motivating participation.

Lena further emphasizes the significance of using familiar music from TikTok. She explains that dances performed to popular music on TikTok, which the students have seen, help to motivate them. However, most educators do not mention the idea of broadening the pupils’ musical preferences.

Marie-Louise, from Neptune School, also highlights the importance of incorporating various games and popular culture to motivate the students. She mentions the game Fortnite as a successful example of how she engages and captures the pupils’ interest. The experiences gained from computer games are seen as closely connected to dance – almost serving as a prerequisite for dance to occur in the school-age educare.

The educators express concern regarding gender-related issues in dance, particularly in relation to the pupils’ preference for using TikTok. Involving the boys seems important to the educators as a way to measure how successful the activity has been. Monika and her colleagues from Mercury School add that ‘boys also’ take part in Just Dance activities, finding them fun, despite being occasionally challenging.

Sebbe, from Jupiter School, raises concerns about the reproduction of stereotypical movements, such as shaking the buttocks and the tenancy to dance in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes. This leaves the educators feeling somewhat uncertain about how to handle the pupils’ movements that they have copied from TikTok. The ideas of femininity, as expressed by teenage TikTokers, are considered as problematic because the TikTokers perform provocative/sensual movements.

The problem, Sebbe explains, is that these teenage TikTokers have many followers, and they are regarded as successful by the pupils, who look up to them. He highlights the problematic nature of stereotypical dance movements, as well as the accompanying attributes – such as the makeup, clothing, and thin body shapes – in relation to the gender-related goals of education. These elements create concerns about the impact they may have on gender norms. However, Sebbe also acknowledges that the expression of femininity in dances on social media can be seen as a valuable resource for boys. Despite the initial resistance, when some boys actively participate, it encourages additional boys to join in:

But if it’s a game, they still get the chance to express their feminine side. Boys who do not dare to be girly and have to play tough all the time. So, they dance. But at first, they do not want to.

Sebbe explains that while boys may initially resist dance and strive to appear tough, the actions of their peers have a significant influence on them. Competitive aspects, such as the game Just Dance, provide boys with the opportunity to participate in dance, which they appreciate. The game functions as a facilitator for moving beyond stereotypical gender positions. None of the educators reflect upon the type of dance movements performed by boys. Instead, it appears that their focus is on successfully getting the boys to dance, regardless of the type of movements they perform.

While Sebbe raised concerns regarding gender stereotypical choices and models, none of the educators mentioned any initiatives to address these issues with the pupils. In general, the educators appear to regard the role of digital tools as a valuable contribution without further reflection on the content or implications. Instead, they express their own lack of digital competence as a problem. Despite categorizing themselves as lacking dancing skills, they do not perceive it as a limitation because they can still create opportunities for the pupils to dance by utilizing digital tools effectively.

The educators often organize dance opportunities by bringing out a loudspeaker to the schoolyard to play TikTok music or by setting up the projector indoors. Caleb, a teacher from Mercury School, shares that his role often involves setting up the projector and arranging chairs so the pupils can dance. He expresses his surprise, relating ‘I didn’t know that the pupils loved dancing … until the projector came.’ This suggests that Calab was unaware of the pupils’ interest in dance and indicates that previous opportunities for them to engage in dance had been limited in school-age educare.

Anette, from Uranus School, reflects on her own limited engagement in TikTok and social media. She admits that she does not recognize the dances the pupils choose to do in the schoolyard during breaks and after school-age educare. Despite having much experience in teaching children to dance in her spare time, her lack of knowledge in social media and digital tools is portrayed as a greater limitation than her knowledge in dance is regarded as a resource. This emphasizes the significance of digital tools as a core aspect in dance education in school-age educare, surpassing the educators’ own embodied qualifications.

Performing pre-choreographed dances

Most of the dance routines described by the educators consist of pre-choreographed movements that pupils learn from each other, older siblings, or visiting instructors. The dances performed during school breaks are influenced by the pupils’ extracurricular activities, such as floor gymnastic programs. Some girls teach each other different floor gymnastic movements set to music. At Mercury School, which has many pupils with diverse nationalities, dances from their home countries are also performed. Monika, from Mercury School, conveys:

Then you have an organized dance where you dance a Bulgarian folk dance with specific movements. There are many kinds of dances. Now I do not think our pupils dance with so much improvisation. I get a little eager to teach the children … . Maybe we can look at a little different dance forms.

Monika observes that the pupils do not engage in much improvisation. Rather, they rely on set dances that they repeatedly perform, such as a Bulgarian folk dance. Monika, who knows about a few other dance forms from her personal life, suggests that educators should more carefully design learning situations to challenge pupils. Lena, from Uranus School, shares a pragmatic view concerning limited resources. She explains how tempting it is to just watch YouTube and follow existing choreographies, as she lacks dance knowledge and the time to develop dance education in more diverse ways. The issue of limited time and the temptation to reproduce existing choreographies is constantly referred to by all the participants. Lena also alludes to specific popular movements that her pupils have adopted, for example ‘The Floss,’ which involves the swinging of arms and the moving of hips. The Floss has spread among the pupils, who strive to replicate movements.

The participants construct dance as being initiated by the pupils themselves, with the educators merely providing the necessary equipment, such as loudspeakers or projectors. The pupils who choose to participate are familiar with the music and perform the same repertoire of choreographies. According to Sebbe, ‘They know what to do,’ thus indicating that the dances are not choreographed by the pupils themselves but copied from TikTok. The educators’ self-proclaimed main task is to encourage the children to participate in dancing. They argue that they do not need special dance skills to achieve this goal, as they can rely on popular dances the pupils are already familiar with.

Jens, from Saturn School, highlights the popularity of TikTok as a dominant dance activity. However, when the pupils met a visiting teacher student who showcased a pre-choreographed popular dance, ‘Cotton Eye Joe,’ their interest in performing that dance grew. The introduction of a new dance choreography fascinated the pupils, and they received input from an adult that danced alongside them. Engaging in dance as an adult provided an opportunity to introduce new material to the pupils, which they continued to use even after the departure of the teacher student. However, it is worth noting that none of the educators mentioned any intention to support pupils in developing their own dances, including concepts, movements, and stimuli.

Using music that pupils are familiar with is consistently considered a relevant choice, with very few exceptions. However, Marie-Louise, from Neptune School, stands out by introducing country music and other genres that are unfamiliar to the pupils. In her spare time, she teaches line dance and takes the opportunity to challenge the pupils by introducing line dance choreography to country music in the school-age educare. By doing so, she contributes to broadening the pupils’ dance knowledge by inviting them to participate in a genre unknown to many of them. According to her description, she and a colleague instruct the pupils to line up in front of them and to mimic their movements.

Jens, from Saturn School, reflects on the many opportunities that dance offers for educators to explore and to develop with the pupils. However, it is more common for the educators to focus on providing equipment that facilitates dance rather than using their own bodies to challenge the pupils or design learning situations that involve the creation of non-pre-choreographed dances.

Discussion

This study aimed to critically examine how dance as a learning activity is constructed by educators in Swedish school-age educare. Following research questions were asked: 1) How do school-age educators motivate incorporating dance activities in their teaching and what strategies do they use? 2) What discourses about learning opportunities and challenges related to dance in school-age educare do they emphasize? In the school-age educators’ narratives, dancing emerges as a popular activity, but the constructions of dance as a learning activity seem to be limited to it being a joy-filled activity and an imitation of movements with or without digital tools. Three discourses (McQuillan 2000; Potter 1996) for how dance as a learning activity is constructed appeared in the study: dance as a joy-filled activity, the use of digital tools as prerequisites for dancing, and a preference for pre-choreographed dances.

The lack of aesthetic and creative perspectives in dance

This study has revealed that dance is a prevalent learning activity in all school-age educares. However, the creative aspects of dance are not prominent. While there is ample opportunity for pupils to imitate dance movements, the practice of improvisation, where pupils have the chance to create their own dances, is not common. Therefore, the results in this study do not align with the results in the inquiry made by the Swedish National Agency for Education (SNAE 2018). The report presented to educators in school-age educare highlights the opportunities to work with creative expressions frequently in their everyday practice. Our results suggest that the potential of specifically creative dance, as emphasized by Giguere (2011) and Konstantinidou (2023), is currently not being utilized in Swedish school-age educare.

However, imitation of dances is common in Swedish school-age educare. Dance, as a frequent learning activity, often involves copying pre-choreographed dances from TikTok or Just Dance. Educators regard these tools as important as they provide opportunities to incorporate dance into the curriculum and at the same time work with incorporating digital tools. The use of digital tools and equipment, such as projectors and game consoles, become particularly valuable when the educators themselves lack interest or knowledge in dance. The results suggest that certain educators did not start implementing dance education until they obtained technical equipment that could help facilitate dance activities. It must be seen as problematic that pupils’ interest in dance was not fully taken into account prior to the procurement of these technical tools

The dominance of digital tools in dance education may be attributed to the teachers’ scarce competences and pedagogies in dance. As Russel- Bowie suggests, the confidence connected to teaching dance is related to one’s background. In contexts such as preschool education (Pastorek Gripson, Lindqvist, and Østern 2022) and physical education (Mattsson 2016; Ørbæk and Engelsrud 2021), educators may feel insecure about teaching creative dance, particularly when it involves their active physical participation.

In Selander’s (2017, 45 and 121–125) description of ‘a developed didactical triangle,’ digital resources are emphasized as a facilitator for co-designed learning, where teachers and pupils co-create the learning content when using digital resources. This approach distributes power from teachers to pupils, requiring teachers to participate in creating the activity together with the pupils. However, in this study, such situations are rare. In Selander’s approach to teaching, the role of the teacher shifts from expert to co-learner. This is consistent with the statements of some participants, although the majority of them do not actively take part in the dance activities with the pupils. This shift also reflects a change in focus from ‘best practice’ to a more student-centered and holistic approach to teaching dance education (Kipling Brown 2014; Pickard 2022; Samson 2009; Schupp 2022).

In Swedish school-age educare, the opportunity for pupils to receive pedagogical support in developing their creative skills is limited. Pastorek Gripson et al. (2022) point out that children in preschool often create their own movements in dance activities, often without pedagogical support from preschool teachers. While the educational goals in school-age educare and preschools are similar (SOU 1991, 54), the prerequisites for dance education differ. According to our findings, pupils in school-age educare do not have the same opportunities to improvise and to create their own dances as they did in preschool.

Educators’ lack of know-how in incorporating dance into school-age educare

The educators share a common goal to incorporate dance into their education. They acknowledge the numerous benefits that dance can provide for their pupils, such as developing motor skills, social skills, cooperation, joy, and well-being. However, they also underline the challenges they encounter due to the lower status and limited resources of school-age educare compared to primary school. These challenges affect not only their ability to plan and develop their own teaching practices, but also limit the time available for further professional training. Nonetheless, they still find ways to promote pupils’ opportunities to dance, aiming to give the children agency.

This study identified four strategies that educators use when they themselves lack competence in dance. Firstly, the educators rely on pupils’ existing knowledge and abilities to teach each other dances and routines they already are familiar with. This can include dances learned from extra-curricular dance activities, popular dance trends like TikTok, or even traditional dances from their cultural background, such as Bulgarian folk dance.

Secondly, the educators collaborate with other educational organizations, such as the municipal art and music school or invite dance organizations to participate. These visitors bring their expertise and can capture the interest of some pupils. However, it is important to note that their content or teaching methods may not always be suitable or adapted to the educational context of school-age educare. This is in line with Pastorek Gripson, Mattsson, and Lindqvist (2023), who highlight the rarity of long-lasting collaboration in dance education between the educational sector end art institutions. They also underscore the importance of combining dance competence with pedagogical competence tailored to the specific educational setting.

Thirdly, the educators often rely on the use of digital tools such as projectors, TikTok, and Just Dance to facilitate dance activities. These tools are seen as helpful in promoting dance and are generally viewed positively. Even educators with knowledge in dance tend to de-emphasize their expertise in dance and instead point out their lack of digital competence, as if digital competence would be more valuable than dance competence. However, the educators also recognize the importance of adults engaging in dance and introducing new dance material other than TikTok and Just Dance.

Incorporating professional dance performances and discussing and problematizing dance with the pupils is part of a holistic dance practice (Risner 2009, Smith-Autard 2013; Stinson 2001). However, our results indicate that this is not common practice among the educators.

None of the educators mentioned engaging in reflective conversations with pupils regarding topics such as gender positioning, despite gender issues being frequently raised during the interviews. While almost all participating educators expressed a desire to involve more boys in dance activities, only one educator reflected on challenges of stereotypical moves and problematic role models on TikTok. As the educators’ statements often relate to boys versus girls, reflective talk on gender binaries is lacking. It is important to recognize that role models and stereotypical dance moves can be utilized as tools to challenge gender stereotypical behavior and to raise awareness among the pupils (Pastorek Gripson 2016; Stinson 2005a).

The fourth strategy involves active dancing by the educators. To promote a permissive climate and reduce pressure and insecurity among the pupils, the educators often take part in dance activities in a way that they poke fun at themselves. This strategy can be understood in relation to the holistic ambitions that inform the practice – that everyone is capable of dancing. By presenting themselves as lacking any specific dancing skills and adopting an unpretentious attitude, the educators seek to encourage hesitant pupils to take part. However, while this strategy may increase more participation, it might not necessarily foster a sustainable connection and recognition in dance (Stinson 2005b).

Dance activities instead of learning dance

In this study, it became evident that the joy-filled aspect of dance is considered more important than viewing dance as an opportunity for learning through participation. Drawing from Pickard (2022), we argue that this mindset among the educators might limits children’s holistic development if the focus is on ‘having fun’ only. Bodily learning in dance offers unique opportunities to integrate physical, cognitive, aesthetic, and artistic competences in both the process and the products of dance education.

In this study, all participating educators emphasized the significance of providing all students with the opportunity to engage in dance activities. While some educators mentioned occasionally needing to encourage pupil participation, also those that are more skeptical towards dance, it is mostly voluntary. The dance activities in this study follow an activity approach, focusing on reproducing movements in a controlled way. The pupils in school-age educare often reproduce various popular dances, as it is considered fun. The educators in this study believe that the dance activity must be fun for the pupils in order to encourage their participation. This strategy is in line with Samson (Samson 2009), who argues for allowing children’s’ perspectives and initiatives to impact the education.

According to Anttila and Svendler Nielsen (2019), children often use the word joy to describe their feelings when dancing. However, Stinson (1997, 65) argues that ‘If we want students to develop and go beyond pleasure and enjoyment, we need to do more, to challenge students beyond their current level of skill and knowledge while giving them the tools to get there.’ Gard (2006b) also argues that true learning appears when one steps out of their comfort zone, facing challenges and inconveniences that push them to develop their abilities further. Therefore, simply legitimizing dance as fun may not be sufficient if education also aims at fostering new skills and awareness. In our study, this is demonstrated in situations where boys participate in dance styles that are perceived as traditionally feminine. According to Gard (2006b), dance can also be used in learning situations to prompt reflections on our identities when we move differently and on why we experience some activities or emotions negatively.

Therefore, we contend that a shift from dance as an activity towards dance as a learning area is crucial for in-depth development within dance education. This approach is in line with Smith Autard’s (2013) perspective on how we can learn to appreciate dance.

In this study, the educators highlighted the importance of selecting music and dances that the pupils enjoy and find joyful. This strategy aligns with the goal of allowing children to influence their education. However, Mattsson (2016) shows that it is crucial for children to be exposed to unfamiliar music in order to create new movements in expressive dance assignments that go beyond their existing knowledge. Borgström Källén (2014) also supports this finding, highlighting similar patterns in music education. In our study, noted that the pupils’ selection of music and dance style retained gender positions and repetitive movement patterns (Mattsson and Larsson 2021). Additionally, Hebert (2017) problematizes the adaptation of dance practices to ‘fit boys,’ as this might perpetuate stereotypical choices. Accordingly, the purpose of dance activities in school-age educare in this study is not to create a structured learning situation as outlined in the curriculum (SNAE 2022b), but rather to provide a valuable opportunity for pupils in school-age educare to move together and have fun. It does not matter what dance activities the pupils engage in, as long as they are dancing. Our findings also show that the educators strive to include all the pupils in school-age educare, but it is mostly girls who actively participate in the dance activities. Specifically, it is the pupils who already have an interest in dance who choose to participate in the dance activities.

Conclusions

The educators frequently expressed concerns about the lack of resources and perceived low status of school-age educare in comparison to primary school. However, their strong dedication to promoting the well-being and learning of each pupil was prominent throughout the interviews. School-age educare is characterized by a holistic practice that prioritizes opportunities for individual choices, is sensitive to popular interests among pupils, and strives to be inclusive (Andishmand 2017; Saar, Löfdahl, and Hjalmarsson 2012).

Additionally, the educators noted that schoolteachers often delegate the responsibility of teaching aesthetic expressions to school-age educare. Due to limited competences and resources, dance remains an underutilized potential for pupils’ development and learning. However, when educators challenge and support pupils in developing their dance skills, it not only enables them to acquire new abilities but also fosters their capacity for self-reflection, understanding their peers, and addressing dilemmas with dance (Mattsson and Larsson 2021; Pastorek Gripson 2016; Smith Autard 2013; Stinson 2005b).

The educators in our study highlighted the contrasting nature of school practice, which they described as more demanding and stricter than school-age educare. Since the educare offers greater freedom and creative opportunities, incorporating dance has the potential to enhance the status of school-age educare in relation to school practice. By actively engaging themselves, participating with their own bodies, and challenging pupils to improvise and step outside their comfort zone, the educators can contribute to empowering their pupils. This goes beyond simply mimicking pre-choreographed dances and instead focuses on their overall growth and developmentThe perception of dance as a feminine activity should be challenged, but it is not easy for school-age educators to do so and simultaneously encourage pupils’ interests (Gard 2003; Lindqvist 2010, 2019; Pastorek Gripson 2016; Risner 2009; Stinson 2005a, 2005b). The current approach to incorporating dance in school-age educare does not effectively foster pupils’ creativity. Furthermore, the educators lack the necessary knowledge and skills to further develop pupils’ dance abilities beyond what they already know. Therefore, the educators in this study are supportive of the pupils’ engagement in dance, often taking on the role of organizers of the pedagogical environment rather than solely as dance instructors.

However, the provision of dance in school-age educare tends to follow current trends and relies on digital tools, rather than prioritizing the development of dance knowledge. By facilitating aesthetic and creative activities, the educators can inspire and enhance children’s abilities by engaging in the creative exploration of dance alongside the pupils.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Torun Mattsson

Torun Mattsson with a PhD in Sport Sciences is a senior lecturer at the Department of Sport Sciences at Malmö University, Sweden. Her research focuses on dance in Physical Education (PE) and in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE). She also focuses on dance in pre-school and in school-age educare centers. Mattsson combines research with her position as Vice Dean at the Faculty of Education and Society at Malmö University. She is a member of the research group “Movement and Embodiment in Education and Society (MEES) at Malmö University.

Märtha Pastorek Gripson

Märtha Pastorek Gripson with a PhD in Arts Education is a senior lecturer in aesthetics and innovation at Halmstad University, Sweden. She works with teaching, supervising and research, mainly in pre-school and teacher education. Her research focuses on dance, gender, inclusion, pre-school, school and school-age educare centers. She has a background as a dance teacher in many different educational contexts and she worked as a principal of a primary school and pre-school and as a leader for a Public Music and Arts School.