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Articles

Following the caterpillar fungus: nature, commodity chains, and the place of Tibet in China's uneven geographies

Suivre le champignon chenille: La nature, les chaînes de production, et la place du Tibet dans les géographies inégales de Chine

Siguiendo al hongo de la oruga: Naturaleza, cadena productivas, y el rol del Tíbet en las geografías de la desigualdad en China

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Pages 318-340 | Received 07 Jun 2012, Accepted 13 Dec 2012, Published online: 06 Feb 2013
 

Abstract

Following caterpillar fungus as it travels from the Tibetan Plateau to wealthy Chinese consumers, this article makes several interventions into geographical studies of commodity chains. First, it argues for an expansion beyond the usual call to connect the political economy of production with cultures of consumption; the cultural politics of production and political economies of consumption must also be considered. Second, it argues for bringing together political economy and more-than-human analytical approaches to commodity chains, showing how nature and the nonhuman play a key role in an assemblage that has allowed Tibetans to navigate livelihoods in a rapidly changing economy. This challenges a tendency to assume a universal figure of ‘the human’ in more-than-human geographies. Third, by connecting the erasure of Tibetans from representations of various natures used to sell caterpillar fungus with the broader politics of Tibetans within the People's Republic of China, we show that commodity fetishism can conceal not just labor relations, but also political struggles not reducible to class. Finally, we show that following a small fungus can shed light on the unevenness of China's capitalist development obscured in monolithic narratives of China's rise, demonstrating the value of expanding commodity chain studies beyond those that end with Western consumers.

Cet article suit le champignon chenille dans son parcours depuis le plateau tibétain jusqu'au mains des consommateurs riches chinois et fait ainsi de nombreuses interventions dans l'étude géographique des chaînes de production. Au premier, il fait valoir un argument pour une expansion au-delà les appels ordinaires à rapprocher l'économie politique de la production et les cultures consommatrices; il faut considérer aussi la politique culturelle de la production et les économies politiques de la consommation. Deuxièmement, il fait valoir un argument pour réunir l'économie politique et des approches analytiques du plus-que-humain aux chaînes de production afin de démontrer comment la nature et le non-humain jouent un rôle-clé dans un assemblage qui a permis aux tibétains de se frayer un chemin à travers des moyens d'existence dans une économie en voie de changement rapide. Cela lance un défi à la tendance de supposer une image universelle du «humain» dans les géographies du plus-que-humain. Troisièmement, en rapprochant l'effacement des tibétains dans les représentations des natures variés mises en œuvre pour vendre le champignon chenille d'un part et la politique plus large des tibétains dans la RPC, nous affirmons que le fétichisme de la marchandise peut dissimuler non seulement les relations de travail, mais aussi le militantisme qui ne peut pas se faire réduire à la classe sociale. Au final, nous illuminons en suivant un petit champignon l'inégalité du développement capitaliste de la Chine qui se trouve dissimulée dans les narratifs monolithes de l'ascension de la Chine, ce qui démontre la valeur d'étendre les études des chaînes de production au-delà celles qui aboutissent aux consommateurs occidentaux.

El presente artículo contribuye a los estudios geográficos sobre las cadenas productivas a través de una serie de intervenciones que resultan del seguimiento del hongo de la oruga en su recorrido desde la meseta tibetana hasta su consumo por parte de pudientes consumidores chinos. En primer lugar se propone ir más allá de los llamamientos usuales de contactar la economía política de la producción con las culturas de consumo, al mismo tiempo que se sugiere tomar en cuenta la relación entre la política cultural de la producción y la economía política del consumo. En segundo lugar, se propone aproximar la economía política y los enfoques analíticos “más que humanos” en las cadenas productivas. De esta manera se demuestra cómo la naturaleza y los no-humanos juegan un rol fundamental en un entramado que le ha permitido a los tibetanos generar modos de subsistencia en una economía que cambia con rapidez. Esta perspectiva desafía la tendencia de asumir una figura universal de “lo humano” en las geografías sobre “más que humanos”. En tercer lugar se pone en contacto el borramiento de los tibetanos en las representaciones de diversas naturalezas utilizadas para vender hongo de la oruga con las políticas generales de los tibetanos dentro del PCR. Así demostramos que el fetichismo de la mercancía encubre no sólo relaciones laborales sino también, luchas políticas irreducibles a una cuestión de clase. Finalmente, mostramos cómo el seguimiento de un pequeño hongo puede echar luz sobre las desigualdades del desarrollo capitalista chino, desigualdades que quedan ocultas en las narrativas monolíticas sobre el crecimiento de este país. Así, constatamos la importancia de ampliar los estudios sobre cadenas productivas hacia aspectos que se extiendan más allá de su finalización en el consumo occidental.

Acknowledgements

This paper could not have been written without the many Tibetans who shared their time and knowledge in the field, as well as the assistance of Yonten Nyima, ‘Issac,’ and Guo Huiling. This paper has been significantly improved, thanks to comments from Michelle Stewart, Nancy Lin, and participants at Geography department colloquia at Dartmouth College and UC Berkeley, as well as the suggestions by the journal's three anonymous reviewers.

Notes

2. Most accounts suggest that it is not used as an aphrodisiac among Tibetans, but see Boesi and Cardi (2009).

3. Yeh was responsible for writing and revision of this paper.

4. For a contrasting view, see Costello (Citation2008).

5. From Nature Repaying Kindness (in Tibetan), unreleased documentary by Nyanbo Yuze Environmental Protection Association, 2011.

6. (1) The precious resources from the earth / have their merits and demerits. / All traders, big or small/crowd to focus on yartsa gunbu. / Resources for making connections to higher levels. / Capital for traders/bases for construction/livelihood for the masses. / The benevolent yartsa gunbu. (2) Culture, tuition, and health / religious rituals/making pilgrimages. / Medical costs and health care services/all depend on yartsa gunbu; (3) The frivolous youth/not listening to the advice of their parents. / Gambling, drunkenness, and loitering / The root of all these problems is yartsa gunbu; (4) Conflicts between villages, tribes, and villagers. / No sense of love between father and son/broken marriages/breaking of vows. Deaths and murder/yartsa gunbu is harmful. / Wherever there is yartsa gunbu/disputes start at the beginning of spring. / The source of the damage to security is yartsa gunbu.

7. The intensification of the harvest has also raised concerns about environmental sustainability among NGOs and Tibetan religious leaders. Sustainability, currently not well understood, depends to a large extent on whether spore abundance is a limiting factor in fungal reproduction. The environmental governance of yartsa is beyond the scope of this paper but see Stewart (Citation2009) and Winkler (Citation2008a, Citation2008b).

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