The Study of Enclaves – Some Introductory Remarks¹

1. This article has been written and this special issue prepared whilst I had the privilege of being a Senior Research Fellow at the Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies. My special thanks to the directors, Ulrich Herbert and Jörn Leonhard, for allowing me to spend the academic year 2008/2009 in the hospitable surroundings of the FRIAS. My own research on Kaliningrad has been funded by the British Academy which also provided the funds to hold a workshop on enclaves at the University of Manchester in December 2007, where versions of the articles in this special issue were first presented. My thanks also to the British Academy for their generous support. Finally, thanks are also due to the anonymous reviewers of Geopolitics, who gave important hints on how to improve the initial manuscript. The remaining shortcomings are, as always, mine only.

Abstract

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Notes

1. This article has been written and this special issue prepared whilst I had the privilege of being a Senior Research Fellow at the Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies. My special thanks to the directors, Ulrich Herbert and Jörn Leonhard, for allowing me to spend the academic year 2008/2009 in the hospitable surroundings of the FRIAS. My own research on Kaliningrad has been funded by the British Academy which also provided the funds to hold a workshop on enclaves at the University of Manchester in December 2007, where versions of the articles in this special issue were first presented. My thanks also to the British Academy for their generous support. Finally, thanks are also due to the anonymous reviewers of Geopolitics, who gave important hints on how to improve the initial manuscript. The remaining shortcomings are, as always, mine only.

2. John Agnew, ‘The History of States and their Territories’, Geopolitics 10 (2005) pp. 184–187.

3. The topic has been studied extensively by Evgeny Vinokurow whose book on the topic is an excellent starting point for all of those interested in enclaves. This introduction is heavily indebted to it. See E. Vinokurow, A Theory of Enclaves (Lanham/MD: Lexington Books 2007), which also contains a comprehensive survey of case studies.

4. Excellent introductions are provided by D. Newman (ed.), Territory, Boundaries and Postmodernity (London: Frank Cass 1999); H. Donnan and T. M. Wilson, Borders. Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State (Oxford: Berg 1999); Paul Ganster and David E. Lorey, Borders and Border Politics in a Globalising World (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources 2004); Remiglio Ratti, ‘Problématique de la frontière et du développement des regions-frontières’, Sciences de la societé. Territoires Frontalières. Continuité et Cohesion 37 (1996).

5. Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly, ‘Theorizing Borders: an Interdisciplinary Perspective’, Geopolitics 10 (2005) pp. 633–649.

6. G. W. S. Robinson, ‘Exclaves’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 49 (1959) pp. 283–295.

7. J. R. V. Prescott, Political Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Allen and Unwin 1987) chap. 7.

8. On the basic economic features of enclaves see Vinokurow (note 3) p. 231.

9. David Newman, ‘Geopolitics Renaissant: Territory, Sovereignty and the World Political Map’, Geopolitics 3 (1998) 1–16.

10. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso 1983); J. Breuilly, Nationalism and the State (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1982); E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983).

11. <http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/ASEN/>, accessed 11 Nov. 2008; A. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Blackwell 1991); A. Smith, Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era (Cambridge: Polity 1995); J. Hutchinson, Nations as Zones of Conflict (London: Sage 2004).

12. C. S. Maier, ‘Transformations of Territoriality 1600–2000’, in G. Budde, S. Conrad and O. Jansz (eds.), Transnationale Geschichte. Themen, Tendenzen und Theorien (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 2006) pp. 32–56.

13. G. Eley, ‘Historicising the Global, Politicising Capital: Giving the Present a Name’, History Workshop Journal 63 (2007) pp. 154–188.

14. F. Hartog, Régimes d'Historicité. Presentisme et Expériences du Temps (Paris: Seuil 2003).

15. Mathias Albert, ‘On Boundaries, Territory and Postmodernity: An International Relations Perspective’, Geopolitics 3 (1998) 53–68.

16. G. Deleuze and F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1987).

17. G. Toal, ‘Understanding Critical Geopolitics: Geopolitics and Risk Society’, Journal of Strategic Studies 22 (1999) pp. 107–124.

18. A. Paasi, Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness (New York: Wiley 1996).

19. Mathias Albert and Paul Reuber, ‘The Production of Regions in the Emerging Global Order: Perspectives on “Strategic Regionalisation”’, Geopolitics 12 (2007) 549–554.

20. John Agnew and Stuart Corbridge, Mastering Space: Hegemony, Territory and Political Economy (London: Routledge 1995).

21. Geoff Cubitt, History and Memory (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2007) p. 9.

22. Jeffrey K. Olick, The Politics of Regret. On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility (London: Routledge 2007) p. 4.

23. Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-Memory and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1977).

24. Olick (note 22) pp. 89 ff.

25. Alexander Melamid, ‘Enclaves and Exclaves’, in D. L. Sillis (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 5 (London: Macmillan 1968) pp. 60–62.

26. All figures from B. Whyte, ‘Bordering on the Ridiculous? A Comparison of the Baarle and Cooch Behar Enclaves’, The Globe 53 (2002) pp. 43–61.

27. Specifically on Ceuta and Melilla see the informative article by Ingmar Söhrman, ‘Ceuta and Melilla – Spain's Presence on African Soil’, Europa Ethnica 56/1–2 (1999) pp. 36–61.

28. H. M. Catudal, The Exclave Problem of Western Europe (Alabama: University of Alabama Press 1979).

29. Louis Malvoz, ‘Baerle-Duc et Baerle-Nassau: Trente-quatre territoires pour deux communes’, Bulletin trimestriel: Credit communal de Belgique 155 (1986) pp. 3–58.

30. Vinokurow (note 3) pp. 178 ff.

31. S. Reid, Canada Remapped: How the Partition of Quebec will Reshape the Nation (Vancouver: Pulp Press 1992).

32. Jan Zielonka, Europe as Empire: The Nature of the Enlarged European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2006).

33. Carl Grundy-Warr and Clive Schofield, ‘Reflections on the Relevance of Classic Approaches and Contemporary Priorities in Boundary Studies’, Geopolitics 10 (2005) pp. 650–662. See also M. Berezin and M. Schain (eds.), Europe Without Borders. Remapping Territory, Citizenship, and Identity in a Transnational Age (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2003).

34. Oliver Kramsch, Virginia Mamadouh and Martin van der Velde, ‘Introduction: Postnational Politics in the European Union’, Geopolitics 9 (2004) pp. 531–541.

35. P. Raton, ‘Les enclaves’, Annuaire français de droit international (1958) pp. 186–195.

36. Vinokurow (note 3) p. 98.

37. L. Niethammer, Kollektive Identität: Heimliche Quellen einer unheimlichen Konjunktur (Reinbek: rororo 2000).

38. U. Frevert, A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society (Oxford: Berg 2004).

39. J. Kennedy, ‘Religion, Nation and European Representations of the Past’, in S. Berger and C. Lorenz (eds.), The Contested Nation: Ethnicity, Class, Religion and Gender in National Histories (Houndmills: Palgrave 2008) pp. 104–134; A. Smith, Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004).

40. John Agnew, ‘Religion and Geopolitics’, Geopolitics 11 (2006) pp. 183–191.

41. Michiel Baud and Willem van Schendel, ‘Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands’, Journal of World History 8 (1997) pp. 211–242.

42. For the concept of ‘internal colonialism’, see M. Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development 1536–1966 (Los Angeles: University of California Press 1975).

43. S. Berger, ‘Border Regions, Hybridity and National Identity: The Cases of Alsace and Masuria’, in Q. E. Wang and F. L. Fillafer (eds.), The Many Faces of Clio: Cross-Cultural Approaches to Historiography. Festschrift for Georg G. Iggers (Oxford: Berghahn 2006) pp. 366–381.

44. P. Aalto, S. Dalby, and V. Harle, ‘The Critical Geopolitics of Northern Europe: Identity Politics Unlimited’, Geopolitics 8 (2003) 1–19.

45. C. S. Browning, ‘The Region-Building Approach Revisited: The Continued Othering of Russia in Discourses of Region-Building in the European North’, Geopolitics 8 (2003) pp. 45–71.

46. Stephen Constantine, ‘Monarchy and Constructing Identity in “British” Gibraltar, c. 1800 to the Present’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 34/1 (2006) pp. 23–44.

47. Compare also S. Nies, ‘Les enclaves – volcans éteints ou en activité’, in P. Conesa (ed.), La sécurité internationale sans les etats, Special Issue of the Revue internationale et stratégique 49 (2003).