The Moral Geopolitics of Exported Spatial Development: Revisiting Israeli Involvement in Africa

Abstract

This article will analyse Israel's past involvement (1956–1973) in Africa, in the context of a wider theoretical conceptualisation of the role of spatial development in the construction of moral geopolitics. Re-thinking the relevance of postcolonial critiques, the paper examines the political and institutional setup underlying Israeli involvement in development in Africa, documenting the scope of this phenomenon by looking at policy makers, professionals and institutions, studying the role of spatial development and planning in the design of Israel's policies, and analysing the actual results of such projects. Despite considerable Israeli involvement and investment in spatial development projects in postcolonial Africa, the existing literature on the subject is narrow, dealing mainly with pragmatic political interests, and there is hardly any structured documentation of Israel's exported spatial development to Africa – its scope, qualities, successes or failures. Moreover, in the wider literature the analysis of spatial development as “exported” knowledge is perceived as a by-product of the polity between Empires and the Margins – an assumption that this paper aims to question.

This article is dedicated to the memory of Sara Khinski, with whom my journey to Africa began.

Notes

1. D. Ben-Gurion, ‘Statement to the Knesset by Prime Minister’ (6 May 1963), Vol. 1–2: 1947–1974, available at <http://www.mfa.gov.il> (in Hebrew).

2. For a detailed analysis see S. Decalo, Israel and Africa – Forty Years 1956–1996 (Gainesville, FL: Florida Academic Press 1986); J. Peters, Israel and Africa – The Problematic Friendship (London: British Academic Press 1992).

3. For a detailed analysis see Decalo (note 2); Peters (note 2).

4. Israeli State Archive (hereafter ISA), ‘A Delegation from Senegal Visits Israel to Study Professional Education in Israel’, ISA HZ 200\12 (12 Nov. 1959).

5. The Jerusalem Post, 23 July 1957.

6. Peters (note 2) p. 4.

7. ‘Economic Co-operation between Israel and Developing Countries, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Economic Desk’, ISA HZ 951\20 (undated).

8. Both Decalo and Peters (note 2) are important sources for studying Israeli involvement in Africa, with a strong emphasis on international relations and a detailed description of foreign policy.

9. F. Ajami and M. H. Sours, ‘Israel and Sub-Saharan Africa: A Study of Interaction’, African Studies Review 13/3 (1970) pp. 405–407; L. Frank, ‘Israel and Africa: The Era of Tachlis’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 26/1 (1988) p. 152.

10. B. Beit-Hallahmi, The Israeli Connection (London: I.B. Tauris and Co. 1988) p. 8.

11. O. Yiftachel, ‘Planning and Social Control: Exploring the Dark Side’, Journal of Planning Literature (1998) pp. 395–406; Yacobi, ‘Social Exclusion, Housing Environment and Tolerant Planning: The Case of the Jahelin Bedouin Tribe’, Hagar – International Social Science Review (2004) pp. 69–84.

12. E. Weizman, Hollow Land: Israel's Architecture of Occupation (London: Verso 2007); E. Efrat, Palestine – The Emergence of a Fenced State (Tel Aviv: Mednik Books 2008).

13. H. Yacobi. Constructing a Sense of Place: Architecture and the Zionist Discourse (London: Ashgate 2004).

14. See M. McAlister, Epic Encounters – Culture, Media & U.S. Interests in the Middle East since 1945 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press 2005) pp. 4–13; M. J. Shapiro, ‘Moral Geographies and the Ethics of Post-Sovereignty’, Public Culture 6/3 (1994) pp. 479–502.

15. Shapiro (note 14) p. 45.

16. Ibid., p. 41.

17. McAlister (note 14) p. 6.

18. G. O Tuathail and S. Dalby, ‘Critical Geopolitics. Co-editor's Introduction to A Special Issue on Critical Geopolitics’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12 (1994) pp. 513–514.

19. D. Newman, ‘The Geopolitical Imagination’, Borderline (1998) p. 85.

20. A. J. Njoh, Tradition, Culture and Development in Africa: Historical Lessons for Modern Development Planning (London: Ashgate 2006) p. 31.

21. The interpretation and analysis of the texts and documents in this article are based on the methodological perspective described in a vast literature dealing with this subject. See for example: N. Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press 1992); R. Scollon, Mediated Discourse (New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc. 1998); A. Hastings, ‘Discourse and Urban Change: Introduction to the Special Issue’, Urban Studies 36/1 (1999) pp. 7–12.

22. D. Ben Gurion, ‘Towards a New World’, in The Role of the Israel Labour Movement in Establishing Relations with States in Africa and Asia – Documents (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University 1989 [orig. 1960]) p. 5 (in Hebrew).

23. Israel-Africa: A Story of Cooperation (Jerusalem: The Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, year of publication is not indicated). Page number is not indicated.

24. Moshe Sharet, Minister of Foreign Affairs, ‘Speech to the Knesset 1950’, cited in Decalo (note 2) p. 2.

25. Peters (note 2).

26. ‘Israel-Africa Memorandum’, ISA HZ 945\2 (Dec. 1960).

27. Israel Defense Force Archive (hereafter IDFA), ‘Acts of Aid of the IDF and the Ministry of Defense to Foreign Countries’, IDFA 1671\92\22 (27 Oct. 1964).

28. D. Ben-Gurion, ‘Israel Among Nations’, in Government Yearbook (Jerusalem: State of Israel 1952) p. 12 (in Hebrew).

29. For more details, see J. Levey, ‘The Rise and Decline of a Special Relationship: Israel and Ghana 1957–1966’, African Studies Review 46/1 (2003) pp. 155–177.

30. ‘Collection of Newspapers Reports’, IDFA 176\92\110.

31. G. Meir, My Life (London: Futura Publications 1976) p. 264.

32. R. Bareket, ‘Opening Lecture of Cooperation’, in The Role of the Israel Labour Movement in Establishing Relations with States in Africa and Asia – Documents (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University 1989 [orig. 1958]) pp. 2–3 (in Hebrew).

33. See for example Afrique Nouvelle, Special Issue: Israel et l'Afrique (22 Nov. 1961); ‘Le President Yameogo en Israel’, Abidjan Matin (15 July 1961).

34. ‘Press Conference of the President of the Central African Community, Mr. David Dacko’, IDFA 1508\93\291 (June 1962).

35. Gitelson Aurelia, S. Israel's African Setback in Perspective (Jeruslaem: The Hebrew University, The Leonard Davis Institute for International Relations 1974). p. 6–7.

36. Shapiro (note 14) p. 57.

37. T. Herzl, Old-New-Land, trans. by Paula Arnold (Haifa: Haifa Publishing Co. 1969) pp. 129–130.

38. ‘Herzl about Africa’, ISA HZ 934\17 (26 Sep. 1960).

39. Israel-Africa: A Story of Cooperation (note 29) page number is not indicated.

40. Ibid.

41. McAlister (note 14) p. 5.

42. I. Ben Zvi, in H. Tzoref (ed.), Selection of Documents 1884–1963, Israeli State Archive (Jerusalem: Israeli State Archive 1998 [orig. 1962]) p. 521 (in Hebrew).

43. E. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (New York: Penguin Books 1978).

44. Ben Zvi (note 42) pp. 434–435.

45. Peters (note 2) pp. 4–5.

46. Haaretz (22 Dec. 1961).

47. Y. Fischer, Afrique – Art et Folklore (Tel Aviv: 1964).

48. In the scope of this article I will not be able to discuss in detail the importance of publishing these memories and translated African literature to the construction of Israel's moral geopolitics in Africa. Some interesting examples are: Y. Ben David, A White Corn Sead – A Mission in Africa (Tel Aviv: Maarachot 1967) (in Hebrew); G. Axelrad, A ‘Tembe'l Hat in the Jungle (Tel Aviv: Am Oved 1964) (in Hebrew).

49. ‘Press Conference’ (note 34).

50. See also Afrique Nouvelle (note 33); Afrique Nouvelle, ‘Mission d'experts Israeliens a Brazaville’ (18 Jan. 1961).

51. S. Sharon, ‘To Build and be Built: Planning the National Space in the Formative Years of Israel’, thesis submitted at Tel-Aviv University, 2004 (in Hebrew).

52. S. I. Troen, Imagining Zion: Dreams, Designs, and Realities in a Century of Jewish Settlement (New Haven: Yale University Press 2003); Z. Efrat, The Israeli Project: Building and Architecture 1948–1973 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art 2004) (in Hebrew).

53. A. Sharon, Physical Planning in Israel (Tel-Aviv: Government Printing Office 1951) (in Hebrew).

54. Ibid.

55. A. Sharon, Kibbutz+Bauhaus (Tel-Aviv: 1976) ch. 7 (in Hebrew).

56. H. Yacobi, ‘Architecture, Orientalism and Identity: A Critical Analysis of the Israeli Built Environment’, Israel Studies 13/1 (2008) pp. 94–118.

57. Y. Shenhav, The Arab-Jews: Nationalism, Religious and Ethnicity (Tel-Aviv: Am Oved 2003) (in Hebrew).

58. Y. Abessira, ‘Israel's Rural Cooperation Programs in Africa’, M.A. thesis, Department of African Studies, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1998 (in Hebrew); Decalo (note 2); F. Meissner, ‘Israel Technical Cooperation in Agriculture: An Unfinished Agenda for the 1980s and Beyond’, The Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 6/3 (1982–1983) pp. 1–26.

59. In the scope of this article I will not be able to detail the financial backing of Israeli involvement in Africa by the US and France. For a detailed analysis see Beit-Hallahmi (note 10) ch. 3.

60. S. I. Troen, Imagining Zion: Dreams, Designs, and Realities in a Century of Jewish Settlement (New Haven: Yale University Press 2003); Z. Efrat, The Israeli Project: Building and Architecture 1948–1973 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Museum of Art 2004) (in Hebrew).

61. A. Jacob, ‘Israel's Military Aid to Africa 1960–66’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 9/2 (1971) p. 182.

62. C. Legum, ‘Ghana Starts Builders’ Brigade’, Jerusalem Post (22 Dec. 1957); M. Dayan, ‘West African Diary, Three Tests of Achievements’, Jerusalem Post (26 Nov. 1963).

63. Jacob (note 62); E. A. Nadelmann, ‘Israel and Black Africa: A Rapprochement?’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 19/2 (1981) pp. 183–219; Peters (note 2).

64. Jacob (note 62) p. 172.

65. Ibid.

66. M. Dayan, ‘West African Diary, Dilemmas of Technical Assistance’, Jerusalem Post (12 Nov. 1963).

67. ‘A Report of the Afro-Asian Institute for Labour Studies and Co-operation’, ISA HZ 756\22 (12 Dec. 1960).

68. ‘The Program and Schedule of the Nahal Course for Commanders of the Tanzania National Service’, IDFA 1508\93\427 (Oct. 1965).

69. ‘Appendix for a Nahal Final Report – Evaluation of Participants’, IDFA 1665\92\912.

70. ‘The Nahal Course’ (note 69).

71. ‘Gadna Third Youth Leadership Course’, IDFA 1047\93\187; ‘The Nahal Course’(note 71).

72. ‘The Tanganyika African National Union, Introduction Proposal’, IDFA 1047\93\186.

73. Ibid.

74. Abessira (note 59) p. 23.

75. ‘A Visit Report in Nahal – Ivory Coast’, IDFA 1665\92\475 (July 1970).

76. ‘Tanganyika’ (note 73).

77. ‘Ghana Young Pioneers is Two Years Now’, Ghanaian Times (14 June 1962).

78. S. Segev, ‘Nahal – the Great Success of Israel in Africa’, Maariv (29 Nov. 1965).

79. ‘Collection’ (note 30); Abidjan Matin, 15 July 1961.

80. No page indicated.

81. ‘Press Conference’ (note 34); ‘A Visit in a Settlement Project September 29, 1965’, ISA 1362\32; ‘Volunteers Service in Settlement Projects’, ISA HZ 471\4.

82. ‘A Visit Report in Nahal’ (note 76).

83. ‘The Ethiopia Diary’, IDFA 36\89\18, p. 39.

84. ‘Nahal in the Black Continent’, Bamahane Nahal (1 Sept. 1966) p. 17.

85. ‘A Visit in a Settlement Project’ (note 82).

86. A. Lal, ‘Community Development in Africa’, Africa Trade and Development (1961) p. 13.

87. Dayan, Jerusalem Post, 12 Nov. 1963.

88. Decalo (note 2) p. 75.

89. Gitelson Aurelia (note 35) p. 9.

90. For a detailed analysis of the relations between Israel and Africa after 1973 see Beit-Hallahmi (note 10) pp. 72–75.

91. Gamal Abdel Nasser as quoted in Peters (note 2) p. 22.

92. The Breaking Off the relations Between Israel and Africa (Jerusalem: The Ministry of Education 1974).

93. McAlister (note 14) p. 4.

94. Decalo (note 2) p. 67.

95. A. D. King, Urbanism, Colonialism and the World Economy – Cultural and Spatial Foundations of the World Urban System (London and New York: Routledge 1990).

96. J. M. Jacobs, The Edge of Empire: Postcolonialism and the City (London: Routledge 1996).

97. G. O Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics: The Politics of Writing Global Space (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 1997) p. 56.

98. O Tuathail and Dalby (note 18) p. 516.