A curious case of failing sports diplomacy in the early cold war: the mediterranean friendship tournament (1949)

ABSTRACT

This article argues that anti-sportsmanship of Greek audiences, players, and officials towards Turkish national soccer players during the Mediterranean Friendship Tournament of 1949 in Athens not only led to a short-term crisis in the Greek-Turkish relations due to mass anti-Greek protests in Turkey, but it also held these two countries back from enjoying the power of soccer as a diplomatic tool in maintaining and developing their Cold War alliance. The verbal and physical Greek attacks against the Turkish national team provoked a major disturbance in the Turkish public sphere, and Turkish protesters filled the streets all around Turkey. These demonstrations only stopped when the Turkish authorities declared the end of national soccer activity with Greece. In short, the tournament represented a remarkable case with respect to the role of public opinion in the making of foreign policy and in the use of soccer diplomacy.

Acknowledgement

I would like to offer my special thanks to Professor Robert Edelman for his extremely valuable comments on the earlier version of this paper. Additionally, for their continuous support and encouragement, I owe special thanks to Semih Gökatalay, Reem Taşyakan, Çağlar Dölek, Hüseyin Abut, Armağan Önder Hergüner, and Soner Çubukçu.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Johns, ‘Competing in the Global Arena: Sport and Foreign Relations Since 1945ʹ, 4–7; Edelman and Young, ‘Explaining Cold War Sport’, 1; Beacom, International Diplomacy and the Olympic Movement: The Mediators, 150.

2. Quiroga, Football and National Identities in Spain: The Strange Death of Don Quixote, 9–10; Oriord, King Football: Sport and Spectacle in the Golden Age of Radio and Newsreels, Movies and Magazines, the Weekly and Daily Press, 11; Crolley and Hand, Football, Europe and the Press, 7; Taylor, ‘Global Spread of Football’, 193; Maguire and Burrows, ‘“Not the Germans Again”: Soccer, Identity Politics and the Media’, 142; Mills, The Politics of Football in Yugoslavia: Sport, Nationalism and the State, 125.

3. Dolan and Connolly, ‘Contested and Contingent National Identifications in Sport’, 1; Gordon and Grundlingh, ‘Going for the Reds: Max Gluckman and the Anthropology of Football’, 30.

4. For examples, see Jackson and Haigh, Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World; Dichter and Johns ed. Diplomatic Games; Borrero, ‘Beyond the Unfulfilled Promise of Soviet International Football, 1945–1991ʹ, 101–118 and Dordevic and Zikic, ‘Normalising Political Relations through Football: the Case of Croatia and Serbia (1990–2013)’, 39–54.

5. Binder, ‘Greece, Turkey, and NATO’, 95.

6. Emen, ‘Turkey’s Relations with Greece in the 1920s: The Pangalos Factor’, 57.

7. Türkeş, ‘The Balkan Pact and its Immediate Implications for the Balkan States, 1930–34’, 136.

8. 26 September 1943: Foreign Office (F.O.) 195/2480/1943.

9. 5 February 1942: Türk Kızılayı Arşivi (TKA) [the Red Crescent Archives], Box No: 2599, Document No: 39, 1; 26 April 1942: TKA, Box No: 2599, Document No: 1, 5; 2 June 1942: TKA, Box No: 2599, Document No: 56; 1 June 1942: TCA, Box No: 2599, Document No: 55; 13 June 1942: TKA, Box No: 2599, Document No: 51.

10. Kayaoğlu, ‘Strategic Imperatives, Democratic Rhetoric: The United States and Turkey, 1945–52’, 327–328; Satterthwaite, ‘The Truman Doctrine: Turkey’, 77–78.

11. Arıpınar ed., Türk Futbol Tarihi II (1904–1991), 18.

12. ‘Milli Takımımız Galip Geldi’, Cumhuriyet, April 24, 1948, 1.

13. Ibid., 1.

14. Cem Atabeyoğlu, ‘Son 25 Yılda Yaptığımız Milli Maçlar’, Cumhuriyet, November 28, 1948, 5.

15. 1,221,489 Orthodox Christians were forced to migrate to Greece from Turkey due to the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, with an exception of Greeks in Istanbul. Lefter Küçükandonyadis and his family were among those who stayed in Turkey.

16. http://www.paros.com.tr/?p=4769 (10 November 2017).

17. Türk Futbol Tarihi II, 19–20.

18. ‘İstanbul-Atina: Atina’da Bugün Yapılacak Maç’, Akşam, April 25, 1948, 2.

19. Eşref Şefik, ‘Milli Takımımız, Yunan Milli Takımını Dün 2–1 Yendi’, Cumhuriyet, November 29, 1948, 1, 4.

20. Eşref Şefik, ‘Bugünkü Milli Maç’, Cumhuriyet, November 28, 1948, 5.

21. ‘Kafile Başkanının Beyanatı’, Cumhuriyet, November 26, 1948, 2.

22. Ibid., 2.

23. Ibid., 2.

24. Eşref Şefik, ‘Bugünkü Milli Maç’, 5.

25. Eşref Şefik, ‘Milli Takımımız, Yunan Milli Takımını Dün 2–1 Yendi’, 1, 4.

26. ‘Akdeniz Paktı Hususunda Türkiye ve Yunanistan Tam Mutabakat Halinde’, Ulus, February 20, 1949, 1; Bulut, ‘Sovyet Tehdidine Karşı Güvenlik Arayışları: I. ve II. Menderes Hükümetlerinin (1950–1954) NATO Üyeliği ve Balkan Politikası’, 39.

27. Walter H. Waggoner, ‘Turkey in Atlantic Pact Link; Advisory Bid Also to Greece’, The New York Times, October 5, 1950, 1, 16; 14 December 1950: Foreign Relations of United States (FRUS), 795.00/12-1450.

28. K., ‘Greece, Turkey, and N.A.T.O.’, 163–164; Yeşilbursa, ‘Turkey’s Admission in the Middle East Command and its Admission to NATO, 1950–52’, 79–80; Bilgin, Britain and Turkey in the Middle East: Politics and Influence in the Early Cold War Era, 156.

29. ‘Italy’s Ace Soccer Team Perishes in Air Crash’, The New York Times, May 5, 1949, 1.

30. ‘Futbolcularımızın Atina Seyahati Münasebeti[y]le’, Zafer, May 7, 1949, 6; ‘Akdeniz Kupası ve İdareciler’, Akşam, May 15, 1949, 8.

31. ‘Yunanistan Milli Takımını da 2–1 Yendik: Gollerimizi Gündüzle Beşiktaşlı Bülend Attı, Maç Sert ve Favullu Oldu’, Akşam, May 16, 1949, 2.

32. Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın, ‘Soğuk Harbi Ruslar mı Kazandı?’, Ulus, May 16, 1949, 1; ‘Soğuk Harbi Ruslar mı Kazandı? Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın’ın Ulus’ta Çıkan Bir Makalesi’, Akşam, May 16, 1949, 1.

33. 5 May 1949: FRUS: 711.67/5-549.

34. ‘İtalya-Türkiye Maçı Bugün’, Zafer, May 20, 1949, 1.

35. ‘Akdeniz Kupası Maçları: Milli Takımımız Haksız Yere Mağlup Sayıldı: Yunanlı Hakem İtalyanların Bariz Ofsayttan Yaptıkları Üçüncü Golü Saydı, Maçtan Sonra Bazı Oyuncularımız Tecavüze Uğradı’, Akşam, May 21, 1949, 1, 2; ‘Futbolcularımızın Başarısını Kıskanan Elenlerin Yaptığı Çirkin Tecavüz: Milli Takımımızın Akdeniz Kupası Maçlarından Çekilmesi Zaruridir’, Kudret, May 23, 1949, 1, 5; ‘Sanki Dost Bir Sahada Değil, Düşmanlar Önünde Oynadık’, Yeni Asır, May 24, 1949, 1.

36. ‘Atinadaki Vahşi Tecavüz: Taşkın Palikaryalara Hadleri Bildirilecek’, Zafer, May 22, 1949, 1.

37. ‘Hadise, Memlekette Nefretle Karşılandı’, Yeni Sabah, May 22, 1949, 1.

38. Ibid., 1, 7.

39. Kabacalı, Türkiye’de Gençlik Hareketleri, 107.

40. ‘Atina’daki Hadisenin Akisleri Devam Ediyor’, Ulus, May 24, 1949, 1; ‘Atina’da Yapılan Tecavüzün Akisleri’, Cumhuriyet, May 25, 1949, 1; ‘Atinadaki Çirkin Hadiseyi Protesto Mitingi’, Cumhuriyet, May 26, 1949, 1.

41. ‘Üniversite Gençliği Protesto Ediyor’, Yeni Sabah, May 22, 1949, 1, 7.

42. ‘Gençliğin Protestosu: Sporcularımızın Atinada Maruz Kaldıkları Muamele Protesto Edildi’, Akşam, May 24, 1949, 1.

43. ‘Ankara Galeyan İçinde: Hükümetin Bir Tebliğ Neşretmesi Bekleniyor’, Yeni Sabah, May 22, 1949, 1.

44. Marshall Plan was a large-scale economic rescue programme designed by George Marshall, the Secretary of State in the United States. It was to rebuild the war-torn economies of the Western European countries. For more details see Kunz, ‘The Marshall Plan Reconsidered: A Complex of Motives’, 125–133 and Borchard, ‘Intervention: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan’, 885–886.

45. ‘Atinadaki Çirkin Tecavüze Dair Çaldarisin Demeci’, Akşam, May 25, 1949, 1.

46. ‘Turks Protest Attitude of Athens Soccer Crowd’, The New York Times, May 25, 1949, 9.

47. ‘Atinadaki Çirkin Tecavüze Dair Çaldaris’in Demeci’, 1.

48. ‘Yunanlılar, Şimdi de İftiraya Başladılar: Atinada Olup Biten Hadiseleri Türk Gazeteleri Tahrif Ediyorlarmış! Ayıp, Ayıp!’, Yeni Sabah, May 25, 1949, 1.

49. Ibid.

50. ‘Oi Toúrkoi’, Elefthería, May 25, 1949, 1; ‘I Synéchisi ton Antiellinikón Ekdilóseon stin Tourkía’, Néa Chroniká, May 29, 1949, 1.

51. ‘Atina Ajansının Siyasi Mahfillerine Atfen Bildirdiğine Göre’, Ulus, May 26, 1949, 1.

52. ‘Atina’da Miting Men Edildi’, Akşam, May 26, 1949, 1.

53. ‘Sofuklis Venizelosun Demeci’, Akşam, May 26, 1949, 1.

54. ‘Gençlik Heyecanlı Bir Miting Yaptı’, Yeni Sabah, May 27, 1949, 1; ‘Dün İstanbul’da Muazzam Bir Miting Yapıldı’, Zafer, May 27, 1949, 1.

55. At the last moment, the Greek team decided not to attend this championship.

56. ‘Yurt Gençliği Tecavüz Hareketini Takbih Ediyor. Talebe Birliğinin Tertibi ile’, Ulus, May 27, 1949, 1.

57. 30 May 1949: Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet Arşivi (BCA) [Prime Ministry’s Republican Archives], 490 01 608 109 14, 3.

58. ‘Ankara Gençliği Müessif Hadiseyi Protesto Etti’, Ulus, May 28, 1949, 3; ‘Gençliğin Asil Heyecanı’, Kudret, May 29, 1949, 1.

59. ‘Turks Again Hit Greeks, Third Demonstration in Two Days is Held in Ankara’, The New York Times, May 28, 1949, 5.

60. ‘Turks Protest Attitude of Athens Soccer Crowd’, 9.

61. 30 May 1949: Zabıt Cerideleri TBMM [Minutes of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey], D: 8, Y: 4, C: 19, B: 96, O: 1, 1042.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. ‘Atinadaki Hadise: Dışişleri Bakanı Sözlü Soruya Cevap Verdi’, Akşam, May 31, 1949, 1: ‘Türk-Yunan milletinin dost olmaları, el ele yürümeleri şarttır.’

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid.

67. ‘Fransız Güreşçiler Geldi: Yunanlılar Güreş Münasabakalarına İştirak Etmeyecekler’, Akşam, 30 May 1949, 2: ‘Yunan güreşçileri gelmiyorlar: (Londra 30 (R)) Yunan Spor Federasyonu, İstanbul’da yapılacak olan Avrupa Güreş Şampiyonası müsabakalarına güreşçi göndermemeğe karar vermiştir.’

68. http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/medgames.html (22 March 2019).

69. https://www.goal.com/tr/news/2556/editoryal/2013/02/11/3740938/t%C3%BCrkiyenin-akdeniz-kupas%C4%B1yla-ilk-imtihan%C4%B1 (1 April 2019).

70. Türk Futbol Tarihi II, 91.

71. http://www.paros.com.tr/?p=4769 (10 November 2017).

72. Abdülkadir Yücelman, ‘40 Yıl Sonra Atina’dayız’, Cumhuriyet, March 29, 1989, 14.

73. Irak, ‘From Battlefields to Football Fields: Turkish Sports Diplomacy in the Post-Second World War Period’, 164–165.

74. Adil Giray, ‘Milletlerarası Spor Temasları Samimi Dostluğu Bozmamalıdır. Bilakis Sarsılan Politikayı Düzene Koymalıdır’, Akşam, July 15, 1951, 6.

75. Irak, ‘From Battlefields to Football Fields: Turkish Sports Diplomacy in the Post-Second World War Period’, 164–165.

76. ‘Türkiye-Yugoslavya Milli Maçı Bugün Yapılıyor’, Milliyet, June 5, 1953, 1.