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Abstract
Exploring the complexity of South Africa's and Brazil's ‘like-mindedness’ at the regional, multilateral, and bilateral levels, this article argues that shared middle power roles traceable to the pre-Cold War era and beyond set the scene for a great deal of political complementarity and cooperation at the multilateral level where Brazil and South Africa's shared identities drive an interest in reforming global governance processes. This complementarity does not, however, always spill over to the bilateral level, where trans-societal linkages are still relatively limited compared with state-to-state interactions.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Soft-balancing refers to actions that do not directly challenge major powers’ preponderance but delay, frustrate and undermine aggressive unilateral policies using international institutions, economic statecraft and diplomatic arrangements (Pape, Citation2005, p. 9).
2. It is instructive that Smuts was alone amongst the other dominion powers to be accorded the honour of attending meetings of the War Cabinet whenever he happened to be in London (Geldenhuys, Citation1984, p. 6).
3. It is interesting to note that in both South Africa and Brazil support for the Allies was, at least at the societal level, not unanimous. Significant support for the Axis powers, particularly Germany prevailed among many Brazilians and in South Africa, to a lesser degree, amongst some staunchly anti-British Afrikaners.
4. Although the effects of his legacy were not as enduring, J. B. M. Hertzog could in many ways be seen as Vargas’ equivalent in South Africa. Contemporaries, both were nationalists and directed movements which effectively incorporated labour – though Vargas’ was probably more populist whilst Hertzog's efforts were restricted to the amalgamation of white labour. Hertzog's so-called Pact government with Smuts came to an end with the failure of the League and South Africa's entry into the Second World War.
5. Criticising the traditional foreign policy approach one nationalist writer Jose Honorio Rodriguez remarked, ‘The classic diplomacy was a kind of pasteurised product, very pure, very white but hardly national’ (cf. Burns, Citation1967, p. 203).
6. See Flemes (Citation2009, p. 165).
7. Over the past 20 years Brazil has been a non-permanent member of the UNSC four times, 1988–1989, 1993–1994, 1998–1999, 2004–2005 and again 2010–2011.
8. Compare this with the extensive trans-societal links, but fraught inter-state relations, between the UK and South Africa. See Hornsby and Black, this special issue.
9. Paton, Business Day, 21 February 2014, Is SA ready for a labour-led ‘Lula’ moment?
10. South African exports to Brazil include anthracite and coal, ashes and residues, mineral waxes, stainless steel, machinery, base metals, medical instruments, and paperboard boxes. Manufactured goods include mining equipment, chemicals, pool equipment, steel tubes, glass, software, roof tiles, and beer. South African imports from Brazil include chemicals, vehicles, machinery, iron and steel, paper, and ceramics (Friedman & De Villiers, Citation2015).
11. Brazil is not only the primary supplier and training partner for the Namibian navy, but in 2001 arced its foothold by opening a naval advisory mission in Walvis Bay (Thompson & Muggah, Citation2015, p. 2).
12. South Africa's Naspers has a 91% stake in BuscaPe, a Brazilian-based provider of e-commerce services in Latin America. Naspers also has a 30% stake in the Brazilian media company, Abril.
13. South African generic pharmaceuticals Aspen Pharmacare acquired half of Strides Latina in 2007 for US$ 152.5 million.
14. Using sugarcane as feed stock, Alcompac in Brazil participates in Ubuhle Renewable Energy Joint Venture to produce ethanol in Kwazulu Natal; whilst in 2008 Durban-based sugar equipment and consulting company, Bosch projects, has established a subsidiary in Brazil aimed at marketing its patented cane diffusion technology to Brazil's sugar and ethanol sectors.
15. AngloGold Ashanti operates and owns various mines in Brazil.
16. Brazil's O Boticario (cosmetics) and Marcopolo (buses) operate in South Africa.