Abstract
This article examines the variable powers, positions, and legitimacy of informal authorities in Lombok, Indonesia, most notably tuan guru (Muslim clerics) and their affiliate pamswakarsa (vigilante forces). It argues that recent accounts of tuan guru as peacemakers downplay the complex structural factors that enable outbreaks of ethno-religious violence in the first place. By analyzing successive permutations of disorder, traceable back to the colonial era, this article helps locate and give context to the current policing and political dilemmas surrounding vigilantism in Indonesia. It then demonstrates how, in the era of decentralization, local and provincial authorities endeavor to domesticate pamswakarsa groups and their charismatic leaders. Finally, this article concludes that renewed spiritual expansionism, such as the renovation of Hindu temple sanctuaries in Lombok, elicits extreme responses from tuan guru. These responses provide renewed impetus for vigilante violence, strain interisland relations, and, at times, stifle economic development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to my Indonesian colleagues, particularly Yulius and Ridho, for all of their critical input and support.
Notes
5. Though dominated by a 92 percent Sasak majority, the ethnic landscape of Lombok today includes a mixture of Balinese, Sumbawanese, Makassarese, Chinese, Javanese, and Arabs.
10. Where necessary the anonymity of respondents is protected.
11. Based on evidence from the 2008 provincial elections, Kingsley Citation2012 argues that tuan guru have the capacity to serve as “peacemakers.”
14. Cohen Citation2006, 222. In 1894 Komedie Stamboel represented the (pro-Dutch version of) events leading up to the siege of Mataram, Lombok's capital, with the theatrical staging of The Fall of Sin Island.
15. The late sixteenth century marked the arrival of Balinese from the west and Makassarese from the east (via Sumbawa), introducing new trade routes, new social hierarchies, and widespread religious conversion.
16. Funo Citation2002, 221. Similarly, MacDougall (Citation2008, 110) notes the significance of the “political residue of Balinese cultural domination” and the sectarian tension this perpetuates in Lombok.
18. Cribb Citation1991, 18. The Javanese term jago is familiar throughout the archipelago, although such strongmen have also been referred to as bromocorah, centeng, gali-gali, jawara, jeger, or rampokker (in Dutch).
24. Carey Citation1986. On 17 August 1945 Indonesia's revolutionary nationalist leaders proclaimed independence. This was followed by five years of conflict with Dutch forces, known as “police actions,” ending in December 1949.
27. National Defense Law 20/1982 legalized dwifungsi, the dual function doctrine allowing the military to perform a sociopolitical role while simultaneously safeguarding national security.
30. State organs such as the Departemen Agama monitor religious affairs and public adherence to Indonesia's officially recognized religions. As of 2006 Confucianism was reinstated alongside Buddhism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Islam, and Protestantism.
34. Van Dijk Citation2001, 335. Front Pembela Islam is currently chaired by Habib Salim Bin Umar Al Attas.
47. Amphibi, which is officially designated a yayasan (foundation), invokes images of amphibious assault units poised for deployment, although TGH Sibawahi claims the actual meaning to be “amankan masyarakat pemerintah hukum Indonesia berdasarkan iman,” a mishmash of terms related to public security, government, law and a faith-based state.
48. ICG Citation2003, 17. Within the sharia tradition, hudud punishments such as the mutilation of limbs are highly contentious.
49. Interview with TGH Sibawahi in his Suralalem compound, East Lombok, 17 July 2012.
50. See, for instance, Bali Post 2003 and Kristiansen Citation2003, 122.
54.
Bali Post 2006. For a number of tuan guru the “mysticism” of the Ahmadiyah sect is considered heretical and threatening.
57.
Lombok Post 2012 (Polri), 2.
58. Interview with senior officials from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, 18 July 2012.
60. Buehler and Tan Citation2007, 58. Kingsley (Citation2012, 57) found that after more than three centuries of outside interference, Lombok's newly empowered elites were unprepared for the rapid political changes that occurred from 2001 onwards, leading to local rivalries and creating an environment of instability.
62. Interviews and personal communications with political observers in Lombok, July 2012–January 2013.
63. Interview with senior officials from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, 18 July 2012.
64. Documentation obtained from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, 18 July 2012.
65. Smith (Citation2012, 253) found that for a religious figure to “qualify” as tuan guru, years of study in Mecca are required, although in practice credentials are not formally examined and titles are not systematically conferred.
66. Interview with Muhaimin in Jerowaru, East Lombok, 17 July 2012.
67. Interview with members of the Mataram Mediation Center, Lombok, 21 July 2012.
68. Documentation obtained from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, 18 July 2012.
69. Kingsley Citation2012, 65. For all of the tuan guru's parastatal interventions and activities, their actual contributions in good governance, service delivery, inter-ethnic relations, and general everyday well-being and security need to be scrutinized.
70. Interview with members of the Dewan Pimpinan Pusat (Central Leadership Board) of a top political party in Mataram, 20 July 2012.
71. Based on interviews and personal communications in Lombok throughout July 2012. For further evidence, Platt (Citation2012, 86) found tuan guru in West Lombok to be deeply concerned with marriage contracts and possible bridal transgressions.
74. Interview with school teachers in Desa Gunung Sari, West Lombok, 22 July 2012.
75. Kristiansen Citation2003, 121. Based on general observations in Lombok as well as interviews at the Faculty of Law, Universitas Mataram, it emerged that local politicians and bureaucrats felt they could get nothing done without the support of tuan guru.
76. Interview with senior officials from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, 18 July 2012, and corroborated by members of the Dewan Pimpinan Pusat (Central Leadership Board) of a top political party in Mataram on 18 July 2012.
77. Interview with sources in Jerowaru, East Lombok, on 17 July 2012, and corroborated by senior officials from Kesbangpol Linmas, Mataram, on 18 July 2012.
78. Sjah, Cameron and Russell Citation2006. The authors examined government credit schemes such as Kredit Ketahanan Pangan (Food Security Credit) as well as the practices of private lenders in Praya, Lombok.
79.
Lombok Post 2012 (Amphibi).
80. Footage of the 11 February 2012 rescue of Brigadiers Salman and Mustafa, for instance, can be seen on the Metro TV News website. Salman and Mustafa were “held hostage” in East Praya subdistrict by members of an unnamed pamswakarsa because of unpaid debts.
81.
Bali Post 2012 and personal communications with informants from West Lombok, October 2012.
82. Personal correspondence with academics from Mataram, 23 January 2013.
85. Interview with Dharma Wisesa members at their headquarters in Cakranegara, 20 July 2012. Provincial gubernatorial elections as well as mayoral elections in East Lombok District are both scheduled for 13 May 2013.
89. Comprehensive details of the Pura Rinjani proposal are contained in a perencanaan pembangunan (development planning) document drafted by Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia. See also Telle forthcoming.
91. The formal Parisada decision to recognize Pura Penataran Agung Gunung Rinjani as kahyangan jagat was made on 18 February 2003 in accordance with document No.5/PHDI-NTB/II /2003.
93.
Lombok Post 2012 (Belum), 13.
94. Interviews in Bayan, North Lombok, 16 July 2012. One particular Balinese noble moved to Desa Senaru in 1985, and many locals believe that he lifted a curse on the land, allowing the Balinese banjar (community, neighborhood) to thrive in the area.
95. Interviews in Kediri and Mataram, 22 July 2012.
98. Schulte Nordholt Citation2007, 9. In the most recent study of Parisada, Warren 2012 provides examples of edicts issued in response to popular protest surrounding development projects within Bali's “sacred sphere.”
99. Interviews and observations, Parisada office, Cakranegara, 20 July 2012.
100. Interviews conducted in the hamlet of Sabe Lendang, Desa Keru, 20 July 2012.
Aspinall
,
Edward
.
2013
.
A nation in fragments: Patronage and neoliberalism in contemporary Indonesia
.
Critical Asian Studies
,
45
(
1
)
:
27
–
54
.
(doi:10.1080/14672715.2013.758820)
Wilson
,
Ian Douglas
.
2006
.
Continuity and change: The changing contours of organized violence in post–New Order Indonesia
.
Critical Asian Studies
,
38
(
2
)
:
265
–
97
.
(doi:10.1080/14672710600671244)
Huggins
,
Martha K.
1991
.
“
Introduction. Vigilantism and the state: A look north and south
”
. In
Vigilantism and the state in modern Latin America: Essays on extralegal violence
,
Edited by:
Huggins
,
Martha K.
New York
:
Praeger
.
Pratten
,
David
.
2008
.
The politics of protection: Perspectives on vigilantism in Nigeria
.
Africa
,
78
(
1
)
:
1
–
15
.
(doi:10.3366/E0001972008000028)
Henley
,
David
and
Davidson
,
Jamie S.
2007
.
“
Introduction. Radical conservatism: The protean politics of adat
”
. In
The revival of tradition in Indonesian politics: The deployment of adat from colonialism to indigenism
,
Edited by:
Davidson
,
Jamie S.
and
Henley
,
David
.
Abingdon
:
Routledge
.
Verkaaik
,
Oskar
.
2004
.
Migrants and militants. Fun and urban violence in Pakistan
,
Princeton
,
N.J.
:
Princeton University Press
.
Colombijn
,
Freek
.
2002
.
“
Maling, maling! The lynching of petty criminals
”
. In
Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective
,
Edited by:
Colombijn
,
Freek
and
Lindblad
,
J. Thomas
.
Singapore
:
Iseas
.
Kees
,
Van Dijk
.
2002
.
“
The good, the bad and the ugly: Explaining the unexplainable: Amuk massa in Indonesia
”
. In
Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective
,
Edited by:
Colombijn
,
Freek
and
Lindblad
,
J. Thomas
.
Singapore
:
Iseas
.
Huggins
,
Martha K.
1991
.
“
Introduction. Vigilantism and the state: A look north and south
”
. In
Vigilantism and the state in modern Latin America: Essays on extralegal violence
,
Edited by:
Huggins
,
Martha K.
New York
:
Praeger
.
Pratten
,
David
.
2008
.
The politics of protection: Perspectives on vigilantism in Nigeria
.
Africa
,
78
(
1
)
:
1
–
15
.
(doi:10.3366/E0001972008000028)
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Wink
,
Walter
.
2007
.
“
The myth of redemptive violence
”
. In
The destructive power of religion: Violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
,
Edited by:
Ellens
,
J. Harold
.
Westport, Conn.
:
Praeger
.
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
.
2002
.
“
A genealogy of violence
”
. In
Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective
,
Edited by:
Colombijn
,
Freek
and
Lindblad
,
J. Thomas
.
Singapore
:
Iseas
.
Cohen
,
Matthew Isaac
.
2006
.
The Komedie Stamboel: Popular theatre in Colonial Indonesia, 1891–1903
,
Athens, Ohio
:
Ohio University
.
Funo
,
Shuji
.
2002
.
“
The spatial formation of Cakranegara, Lombok
”
. In
The Indonesian town revisited
,
Edited by:
Nas
,
Peter J.M.
Munster
:
Lit Verlag
.
MacDougall
,
John M.
2008
.
“
The political dimensions of emasculation: Fantasy, conspiracy, and estrangement among populist leaders
”
. In
Postcolonial disorders
,
Edited by:
Mary-Jo
,
DelVecchio Good
.
Los Angeles and Berkeley
:
University of California Press
.
Bloembergen
,
Marieke
.
2011
.
Polisi Zaman Hindia Belanda: Dari kepedulian dan ketakutan [Police in the Dutch East Indies era: From compassion to fear]
,
Jakarta: Kompas and Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Cribb
,
Robert
.
1991
.
Gangsters and revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian revolution 1945–1949
,
Honolulu
:
University of Hawai'i Press
.
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
.
2002
.
“
A genealogy of violence
”
. In
Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence in historical perspective
,
Edited by:
Colombijn
,
Freek
and
Lindblad
,
J. Thomas
.
Singapore
:
Iseas
.
Barker
,
Joshua
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
2009
.
“
Reflections on the state in Indonesia
”
. In
State of authority: The state in society in Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Barker
,
Joshua
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Ithaca
,
N.Y.
:
Cornell Southeast Asia Program
.
Cribb
,
Robert
.
1991
.
Gangsters and revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian revolution 1945–1949
,
Honolulu
:
University of Hawai'i Press
.
MacDougall
,
John M.
2007
.
“
Criminality and the political economy of security in Lombok
”
. In
Renegotiating boundaries: Local politics in post-Suharto Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Telle
,
Kari
.
2011
.
“
Spirited warriors: Conspiracy and protection on Lombok
”
. In
Engaging the spirit world: Popular beliefs and practices in modern Southeast Asia
,
Edited by:
Endres
,
Kristen W.
and
Lauser
,
Andrea
.
New York
:
Berghahn Books
.
Hamdi
,
Saipul
and
Smith
,
Bianca J.
2012
.
Sisters, militias and Islam in conflict: Questioning “reconciliation” in Nahdlatul Wathan, Lombok, Indonesia
.
Contemporary Islam
,
6
(
1
)
:
29
–
43
.
(doi:10.1007/s11562-011-0168-5)
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Carey
,
Peter
.
1986
.
“
Introduction
”
. In
Born in fire: The Indonesian struggle for independence
,
Edited by:
Wild
,
Colin
and
Carey
,
Peter
.
Athens, Ohio
:
Ohio University Press
.
Koch
,
Christopher
.
1983
.
The year of living dangerously
,
New York
:
Penguin Books
.
MacDougall
,
John M.
2007
.
“
Criminality and the political economy of security in Lombok
”
. In
Renegotiating boundaries: Local politics in post-Suharto Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Wilson
,
Ian Douglas
.
2006
.
Continuity and change: The changing contours of organized violence in post–New Order Indonesia
.
Critical Asian Studies
,
38
(
2
)
:
265
–
97
.
(doi:10.1080/14672710600671244)
MacDougall
,
John M.
2007
.
“
Criminality and the political economy of security in Lombok
”
. In
Renegotiating boundaries: Local politics in post-Suharto Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Bakker
,
Freek L.
1997
.
Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian state: Recent developments
.
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde
,
153
(
1
)
:
15
–
41
.
Emmerson
,
Donald K.
2000
.
Will Indonesia survive?
.
Foreign Affairs
,
79
(
3
)
:
95
–
106
.
(doi:10.2307/20049732)
Kees
,
Van Dijk
.
2001
.
A country in despair. Indonesia between 1997 and 2000
,
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Rawski
,
Frederick
and
MacDougall
,
John
.
2004
.
Regional autonomy and indigenous exclusivism in Bali
.
International Journal on Minority and Group Rights
,
11
(
1-2
)
:
143
–
57
.
(doi:10.1163/1571811041631308)
Meliala
,
Adrianus
.
2002
.
Local colours for Indonesian national police
.
Policing and Society
,
12
(
2
)
:
153
–
61
.
(doi:10.1080/10439460290020163)
ICG
.
2012
.
“
Indonesia: The deadly cost of poor policing
”
. In
International Crisis Group Asia Report 218
,
Jakarta and Brussels
:
ICG
.
MacDougall
,
John M.
2007
.
“
Criminality and the political economy of security in Lombok
”
. In
Renegotiating boundaries: Local politics in post-Suharto Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Kristiansen
,
Stein
.
2003
.
Violent youth groups in Indonesia: The case of Yogyakarta and Nusa Tenggara Barat
.
Sojourn
,
18
(
1
)
:
110
–
38
.
(doi:10.1355/SJ18-1D)
Wilson
,
Ian Douglas
.
2006
.
Continuity and change: The changing contours of organized violence in post–New Order Indonesia
.
Critical Asian Studies
,
38
(
2
)
:
265
–
97
.
(doi:10.1080/14672710600671244)
Telle
,
Kari
.
2009
.
Dharma power: Searching for security in post–New Order Indonesia
.
Social Analysis
,
53
(
1
)
:
141
–
56
.
(doi:10.3167/sa.2009.530109)
Wahyono
,
Ary
.
2009
.
Forum Kemitraan Polisi dan Masyarakat (FKPM): Sebuah pendekatan perpolisian masyarakat untuk membangun citra polisi [Community Policing Partnership Forum: A community policing approach to improve the image of the police]
.
Masyarakat and Budaya
,
11
(
1
)
:
125
–
43
.
Hamdi
,
Saipul
and
Smith
,
Bianca J.
2012
.
Sisters, militias and Islam in conflict: Questioning “reconciliation” in Nahdlatul Wathan, Lombok, Indonesia
.
Contemporary Islam
,
6
(
1
)
:
29
–
43
.
(doi:10.1007/s11562-011-0168-5)
Hamdi
,
Saipul
and
Smith
,
Bianca J.
2012
.
Sisters, militias and Islam in conflict: Questioning “reconciliation” in Nahdlatul Wathan, Lombok, Indonesia
.
Contemporary Islam
,
6
(
1
)
:
29
–
43
.
(doi:10.1007/s11562-011-0168-5)
ICG
.
2003
.
“
The perils of private security in Indonesia: Guards and militias on Bali and Lombok
”
. In
International Crisis Group Asia Report 67
,
Jakarta and Brussels
:
ICG
.
Kristiansen
,
Stein
.
2003
.
Violent youth groups in Indonesia: The case of Yogyakarta and Nusa Tenggara Barat
.
Sojourn
,
18
(
1
)
:
110
–
38
.
(doi:10.1355/SJ18-1D)
MacDougall
,
John M.
2007
.
“
Criminality and the political economy of security in Lombok
”
. In
Renegotiating boundaries: Local politics in post-Suharto Indonesia
,
Edited by:
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
and
Gerry
,
van Klinken
.
Leiden
:
KITLV Press
.
Telle
,
Kari
.
2009
.
Dharma power: Searching for security in post–New Order Indonesia
.
Social Analysis
,
53
(
1
)
:
141
–
56
.
(doi:10.3167/sa.2009.530109)
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Kirsch
,
Thomas G.
and
Grätz
,
Tilo
.
2010
.
Domesticating vigilantism in Africa
,
Edited by:
Kirsch
,
Thomas G.
and
Grätz
,
Tilo
.
Woodbridge
:
James Currey
.
Tyson
,
Adam
.
2011
.
Being special, becoming indigenous: Dilemmas of special adat rights in Indonesia
.
Asian Journal of Social Science
,
39
(
5
)
:
652
–
73
.
(doi:10.1163/156853111X608339)
Asdhiana
,
Made I
.
2011
.
Pengamanan swakarsa di kawasan wisata [Vigilante forces in the tourist sector]
.
Kompas
,
28 March
Buehler
,
Michael
and
Tan
,
Paige
.
2007
.
Party-candidate relationships in Indonesian local politics: A case study of the 2005 regional elections in Gowa, South Sulawesi Province
.
Indonesia
,
84
October
:
41
–
69
.
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Hamdi
,
Saipul
and
Smith
,
Bianca J.
2012
.
Sisters, militias and Islam in conflict: Questioning “reconciliation” in Nahdlatul Wathan, Lombok, Indonesia
.
Contemporary Islam
,
6
(
1
)
:
29
–
43
.
(doi:10.1007/s11562-011-0168-5)
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Platt
,
Maria
.
2012
.
“It's already gone too far”: Women and the transition into marriage in Lombok, Indonesia
.
The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology
,
13
(
1
)
:
76
–
90
.
(doi:10.1080/14442213.2011.636063)
Kane
,
John
.
2001
.
The politics of moral capital
,
Cambridge
:
Cambridge University Press
.
Kingsley
,
Jeremy J.
2012
.
Peacemakers or peace-breakers? Provincial elections and religious leadership in Lombok, Indonesia
.
Indonesia
,
93
April
:
53
–
82
.
Kristiansen
,
Stein
.
2003
.
Violent youth groups in Indonesia: The case of Yogyakarta and Nusa Tenggara Barat
.
Sojourn
,
18
(
1
)
:
110
–
38
.
(doi:10.1355/SJ18-1D)
Sjah
,
Taslim
,
Cameron
,
Donald
and
Russell
,
Iean
.
2006
.
“
Searching for a better credit system to help improve farmers' incomes: A reflection from study on agricultural credit users in Lombok, Indonesia
”
. In
Readings in world development: Growth and development in the Asia Pacific
,
Edited by:
Roy
,
K.C.
and
Chatterjee
,
S.
New York
:
Nova Science Publishers
.
Ernawati
,
Wahyu
.
2007
.
“
The Lombok treasure
”
. In
Colonial collections revisited
,
Edited by:
Pieter
,
ter Keurs
.
Leiden
:
CNWS Publications
.
Ramstedt
,
Martin
.
2008
.
Hindu bonds at work: Spiritual and commercial ties between India and Bali
.
The Journal of Asian Studies
,
67
(
4
)
:
1227
–
50
.
(doi:10.1017/S0021911808001769)
Schellhorn
,
Matthias
.
2010
.
Development for whom? Social justice and the business of ecotourism
.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism
,
18
(
1
)
:
115
–
35
.
(doi:10.1080/09669580903367229)
Schiller
,
Anne
.
1997
.
Small sacrifices: Religious change and cultural identity among the Ngaju of Indonesia
,
New York
:
Oxford University Press
.
Henk
,
Schulte Nordholt
.
2007
.
Bali: An open fortress 1995–2005: Regional autonomy, electoral democracy and entrenched identities
,
Singapore
:
NUS Press
.
MacDougall
,
John M.
2008
.
“
The political dimensions of emasculation: Fantasy, conspiracy, and estrangement among populist leaders
”
. In
Postcolonial disorders
,
Edited by:
Mary-Jo
,
DelVecchio Good
.
Los Angeles and Berkeley
:
University of California Press
.
Wink
,
Walter
.
2007
.
“
The myth of redemptive violence
”
. In
The destructive power of religion: Violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
,
Edited by:
Ellens
,
J. Harold
.
Westport, Conn.
:
Praeger
.
ICG
.
2003
.
“
The perils of private security in Indonesia: Guards and militias on Bali and Lombok
”
. In
International Crisis Group Asia Report 67
,
Jakarta and Brussels
:
ICG
.